Taiping Rebellion

The Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom fought each other in the Taiping Rebellion, sometimes referred to as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, in China. From its start in 1850 until the collapse of Taiping-controlled Nanjing, which they had renamed Tianjing “heavenly capital,” in 1864, the struggle lasted 14 years. However, it wasn’t until August 1871 that the final rebel forces were vanquished. Between 20 and 30 million people are said to have died in the fight, which equates to 5–10% of China’s population at the time. Although the uprising was eventually put down by the Qing, the state’s political and economic stability suffered greatly as a result of the triumph.

An ethnic Hakka named Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be Jesus Christ’s brother, led the rebellion. In addition to the political collapse of the Qing dynasty and a thorough overhaul of the governmental apparatus, Hong aimed to convert the Han people to his syncretic style of Christianity. Furthermore, the Taiping rebels aimed to completely destroy China’s social system rather than replace its ruling elite. Much of southern China was taken over by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which was based in Nanjing. The Heavenly Kingdom controlled over around 30 million people at its height.

Taiping army fought and held a large portion of the mid- and lower Yangtze valley for over ten years, until the conflict turned into a civil war. With most of Central and Southern China involved, it was the worst conflict to hit China since the Ming–Qing era. Comparable in terms of the number of casualties to World War I, it is the greatest struggle of the 19th century, the deadliest civil war, and one of the worst battles in human history.

Thirty million people left the conquered areas for other parts of China or for colonization abroad. On both sides, the war was marked by great cruelty. The Manchus, the ethnic minority of the governing Imperial House of Aisin-Gioro, were massacred in large numbers by Taiping forces. Massacres were also carried out by the Qing administration, most notably against Nanjing’s civilian populace.

Decentralized provincial forces like the Xiang Army, which was organized and led by Zeng Guofan, crushed the Taiping rebels after they were badly weakened by internal strife after an attempted coup and the siege of Beijing’s failure. Zeng’s soldiers attacked Nanjing in May 1862 after retaking the strategically important city of Anqing and marching down the Yangtze River. Two more years later, on June 1, 1864, Hong Xiuquan passed away during the siege due to poisoning accusations and weed intake in the royal grounds. Barely a month later, Nanjing fell.

The Qing dynasty’s hold on central China was severely weakened by the 14-year civil war, which took place at the same time as the Opium Wars and the eventual Boxer Rebellion. Despite being overshadowed by social and religious turmoil in the nation that exacerbated ethnic conflicts and accelerated the growth of provincial power, the Taiping revolt provided impetus for an initially successful phase of reform and self-strengthening. Historians disagree as to whether these changes contributed to the collapse of central authority following the Republic of China’s founding in 1912 and the beginning of the Warlord Era.

Names

Writers frequently express their differing viewpoints by the terminology they employ to describe the dispute and its players. Because doing so would have given the Taiping more legitimacy, the Qing did not refer to the fight as a civil war or a movement during the 19th century. Rather, they described the turbulent civil war as a time of military ascendancy (軍興; bīngxìng), rebellion (逆; nì), or disorder (亂; luàn). The two most notable commanders were frequently referred to as the Hong-Yang Rebellion (洪楊之亂; Hóngyáng zhī luàn). Because the two names sound the same in Chinese, it was also derisively called the Red Sheep Rebellion (紅羊之亂; Hóngyáng zhī luàn).

Because the Taiping represented a popular ideology based on either Han nationalism or protocommunist ideals, and because they advocated a philosophy that was both nationalist and communist, the war is frequently referred to as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement in contemporary China. Jian Youwen, a researcher, is one of those who calls the uprising the “Taiping Revolutionary Movement” because it aimed to alter the political and social structure entirely rather than just replace one dynasty with another.

The struggle is commonly referred to as the “Taiping Rebellion” by Western historians. Tobie Meyer-Fong and Stephen Platt, among others, have recently contended that the word “Taiping Rebellion” is prejudiced since it implies that the Qing dynasty was a legitimate authority that was engaged in combat with the illegitimate Taiping rebels. They contend that the conflict ought to be referred to as a “civil war” instead. Jürgen Osterhammel and other historians refer to the struggle as the “Taiping Revolution” due to the radical transformative goals of the rebels and the social revolution they started.

The Taiping frequently referred to the Qing in general and the Manchus in particular as some kind of demons or monsters (妖; yāo), reflecting Hong’s declaration that they were engaged in a holy war to purge the world of demons and create paradise on earth. However, little is known about how the Taiping referred to the war. As a reference to their roots in the southeastern region of Guangdong, the Qing called the Taiping “Yue Bandits” (粵匪; Yuèfěi or 粵賊; Yuèzéi) in official documents.

Because the Taiping did not shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a queue as Qing subjects were required to do, they allowed their hair to grow long, which is why the Chinese referred to them as some form of Long-Hairs (長毛鬼、長髪鬼、髪逆、髪賊).

Background

The Qing dynasty faced several famines, natural calamities, economic difficulties, and defeats at the hands of foreign countries during the 19th century. Rents skyrocketed, farmers were severely overtaxed, and peasants began to flee their fields in large numbers. The Chinese economy was badly affected by a trade imbalance brought on by the massive and illegal importation of opium, and the Qing military had just lost the First Opium War. Small-scale combat increased as a result of the rise in banditry, the formation of several secret organizations, and the formation of self-defense groups.

Between 1766 and 1833, China’s population nearly quadrupled, while the country’s cultivated land area stayed constant. In the southern areas where native clans predominated, the government, which was led by ethnic Manchus, had grown weaker and more corrupt. In southern China, the Hakka population, a Han Chinese subgroup, has the highest anti-Manchu prejudice. Christian missionaries were active throughout the interim.

Hong Huoxiu, a Hakka from an impoverished Guangdong hamlet, had a mental breakdown in 1837 after failing the imperial test for the third time, which dashed his hopes of becoming a scholar-official in the civil service. Hong dreamed of going to Heaven while he was recuperating, where he learned that he had a family in Heaven that was different from his family on earth.

Hong’s heavenly father suggested “Hong Xiuquan” as his new name after he bemoaned the fact that people were worshiping demons instead of him and told him that his given name was prohibited and needed to be altered. Later embellishments would claim that Hong also witnessed his celestial father punishing Confucius for misguiding the populace.

Hong’s fourth and last failure at the imperial examinations occurred in 1843. Hong didn’t take the time to closely review Christian literature he had gotten from a Protestant Christian missionary a few years prior until his cousin’s arrival. After reading these pamphlets, Hong thought they had provided him with the secret to deciphering his visions: he had been told to rid the world of demons, including the corrupt Qing government and Confucian teachings; his celestial father was God the Father (whom he identified with Shangdi from Chinese tradition); and the elder brother he had also seen was Jesus Christ.

Hong traveled to Guangzhou in 1847 and studied the Bible with American Baptist missionary Issachar Jacox Roberts. Roberts subsequently said that Hong’s supporters were “bent on making their burlesque religious pretensions serve their political purpose” and declined to baptize him.

The God Worshipping Society was established by his disciple Feng Yunshan shortly after Hong started preaching throughout Guangxi in 1844. This movement was a response to Hong’s blending of Christianity, Taoism, Confucianism, and indigenous millenarianism, which he promoted as a revival of the ancient Chinese religion in Shangdi. According to one historian, Taiping Christianity “grew into a dynamic new Chinese religion.”

The movement began in the late 1840s when bands of robbers and pirates were put down in southern China. Later, it evolved into guerrilla warfare and a civil war after being suppressed by Qing authorities. Two more God-worshippers eventually said that they were able to communicate as members of the “Celestial Family,” namely the Father in Yang Xiuqing’s case and Jesus Christ in Xiao Chaogui’s.

1851–1853: Outbreak and initial stages

The God Worshipping Society was the target of a campaign of religious persecution by local authorities in the southern region of Guangxi, which sparked the Taiping Rebellion. A 10,000-strong rebel army led by Feng Yunshan and Wei Changhui overran Qing soldiers based at Jintian (modern-day Guiping, Guangxi) in early January 1851 after a minor conflict in late December 1850. The Green Standard Army’s effort at imperial retaliation against the Jintian rebellion was effectively thwarted by Taiping soldiers.

The title “Taipings” is frequently used to refer to them in English-language studies since Hong proclaimed himself the Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (also known as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom) on January 11, 1851.

In order to avoid the approaching Qing army, the Taipings started to march north in September 1851. Following the Xiang River, the Taiping army advanced north into Hunan, besieging Changsha, taking control of Yuezhou, and then, in December 1852, crossing the Yangtze River to seize Wuchang. The Taiping leadership made the decision to follow the Yangtze River eastward at this point. In February 1853, Anqing was taken prisoner.

It’s possible that Taiping officials contacted Triad groups, who had numerous cells among government troops and in South China. Whether intentionally or inadvertently, taiping titles mirrored Triad use, which attracted Triads to the movement. Hong Daquan, a rebel who had taken the name Tian De Wang (King of Heavenly Virtue), was apprehended by Qing imperial soldiers in 1852.

Although Hong Daquan’s confession was more likely a rerun of a previous, unrelated White Lotus Rebellion, it claimed that Hong Xiuquan had granted him the title of co-sovereign of the Heavenly Kingdom. However, ties between the triads and the Taiping rebels deteriorated as a result of Nanjing’s capture that year.

1851–1860: Control of Nanjing and expeditions

When the Taipings took control of Nanjing on March 19, 1853, Hong changed its name to “Tianjing,” or the “heavenly capital” of his realm. Before forcing the Manchu ladies outside the city and burning them to death, the Taipings slaughtered all the Manchu males because they believed that they were devils. In an attempt to ease pressure on Nanjing and conquer substantial territory, the Taiping soon began simultaneous excursions to the North and the West. While the later mission had some success, the former was a total disaster.

Hong Xiuquan stopped actively directing administration and policy in 1853 and instead ruled solely through written decrees. He frequently issued religious strictures, lived in luxury, and kept a large number of ladies in his private chamber. He was at odds with Yang Xiuqing, who questioned his sometimes unrealistic plans and was wary of Yang’s aspirations, vast espionage, and assertions of power while “speaking as God.” This tension reached its climax in the Tianjing Incident of 1856, when Wei Changhui, Qin Rigang, and their men, acting on orders from Hong Xiuquan, massacred Yang and his supporters.

Wei and Qin massacred Shi Dakai’s family and entourage when he objected to the carnage, and Wei eventually intended to put Hong in jail. Wei’s schemes were finally foiled, and Hong put him and Qin to death. Five Taiping armies were placed under Shi Dakai’s command and combined into one. However, he left Tianjing and went west into Sichuan out of concern for his life.

The surviving Taiping leaders[who?] attempted to increase their public support and establish alliances with European countries after Yang and Hong were removed from the picture, but they were unsuccessful in both endeavors. Although European military advisors served alongside the Qing army, the Europeans chose to maintain their official neutrality.

Due to their animosity for Chinese culture and Confucian principles, the orthodox rural classes in China opposed the uprising. The elite class of landowners backed with government troops because they were uneasy with the Taiping philosophy and the policy of enforced sex separation, even for married couples.

The primary force opposing the Taiping on behalf of the Qing in Hunan was the local irregular Xiang Army, which Zeng Guofan personally led. In the western theater of the conflict, Zeng’s Xiang Army was successful in retaking a large portion of Jiangxi and Hubei provinces and eventually reversing the Taiping advance. Wuchang was finally retaken by Qing soldiers in December 1856. Jiujiang and the remainder of Jiangxi were taken by the Xiang Army in May and September of 1858, respectively.

Hong Xiuquan’s cousin, Hong Rengan, joined the Taiping army in Nanjing in 1859 and was granted a lot of authority by Hong. Hong Rengan formulated a bold scheme to extend the borders of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.

A successful invasion of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, the richest area of the Qing Empire, was made possible by the Taiping’s victory against the imperial armies that had been encircling Nanjing since 1853 in May 1860. To the east, the Taiping rebels succeeded in seizing Suzhou on June 2, Changzhou on May 26, and Hangzhou on March 19, 1860. Zeng’s army advanced down the Yangtze River while Taiping forces were busy in Jiangsu.

1861–1864: Faltering and collapse

After 15 months, a force of Qing troops led by Frederick Townsend Ward and backed by European officers defeated an effort to capture Shanghai that had started in June 1861. Under the leadership of Charles George Gordon, this army—which would later be dubbed the “Ever Victorious Army”—was a skilled and experienced Qing military force that played a crucial role in the defeat of the Taiping rebels.

With the aid of a naval blockade enforced by the Royal Navy on the city, Zeng Guofan’s Xiang Army took Anqing in 1861, around the time of the Xianfeng Emperor’s death and the rise of the Tongzhi Emperor. The Taipings made their last Eastern Expedition at the end of 1861. On December 9, Ningbo was seized with ease, and on December 31, Hangzhou was besieged and ultimately taken. In January 1862, Taiping forces encircled Shanghai but failed to take it.

The Ever-Victorious Army helped defend other treaty ports, including Ningbo, which was recaptured on May 10, and thwarted another attack on Shanghai in 1862. Along the Yangtze River, they also helped imperial forces retake Taiping strongholds.

Shi Dakai was killed by slow-slicing after turning himself into the Qing in 1863 close to Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan.[48] After being freed or escaping, several of his supporters carried on the resistance movement against the Qing.

The Qing reconquest started in earnest after Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, and Li Hongzhang reformed the Qing army. After failing so miserably at first that he tried suicide, Zeng Guofan followed the teachings of Qi Jiguang, a Ming commander from the 16th century. He hired people from nearby villages, paid them generously, and drilled them instead of using the professional regular soldiers. Li, Zuo, and Zeng all commanded devoted warriors. Qing rule had been restored in the majority of regions by the beginning of 1864.

Attempts by the numerically stronger Taiping Army to break the siege of Nanjing by the Xiang Army in May 1862 were unsuccessful. God will protect the city, said Hong Xiuquan. Food supplies in the city ran short. Hong may have intended suicide when he ate wild veggies and got food sickness. After a 20-day sickness, he passed away in June 1864.

The city was captured by the Qing in the Third Battle of Nanjing a few days later. Zeng Guofan ordered Hong’s remains to be desecrated as a form of spiritual retribution and excavated for verification on August 1. Following its exhumation, it was dissected, burnt, and its ashes were irretrievably scattered by firing them from a cannon.

Hong Xiuquan abdicated in favor of his 15-year-old oldest son, Hong Tianguifu, four months before to the collapse of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Due to the inexperience and helplessness of the younger Hong, the kingdom was swiftly destroyed when, following extensive street-by-street battle, Nanjing fell to the imperial army in July 1864. After escaping with a few others, Tianguifu was apprehended and put to death. The Taiping princes were mostly put to death.

In northern Zhejiang, a small group of devoted Taiping soldiers had remained in combat and gathered around Tianguifu. However, Taiping resistance was progressively driven into the highlands of Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, and eventually Guangdong with the conquest of Tianguifu on October 25, 1864. On January 29, 1866, Wang Haiyang, one of the few Taiping loyalists, was vanquished in Guangdong.

Aftermath

The Taiping government was destroyed with the fall of Nanjing in 1864, but the struggle was far from done. With almost a quarter of a million fighting in the border areas of Jiangxi and Fujian alone, several hundred thousand Taiping forces were still engaged in combat. The final Taiping army under Shi Dakai’s commander, Li Fuzhong (李福忠), was not entirely destroyed by government forces in the border regions of Guangxi, Guizhou, and Hunan until August 1871.

Devastating repercussions of the Taiping Wars even extended into Vietnam. An ethnic Zhuang Taiping chieftain named Wu Lingyun (吳凌雲) declared himself King of Dingling (廷陵國) on the Sino-Vietnamese border areas in 1860. In 1868, a Qing campaign devastated Dingling. A Qing-Vietnamese alliance commanded by Feng Zicai assassinated his son Wu Yazhong, commonly known as Wu Kun (吳鯤), in Thái Nguyên in 1869 after he escaped to Vietnam.

Wu Kun’s forces disbanded and formed raiding armies, including the Black Flag Army under Liu Yongfu and the Yellow Flag Army under Huang Chongying (黃崇英). Later, during the Sino-French War in the 1880s, the latter would assist the Nguyễn dynasty in fighting the French. He would go on to become a well-known warlord in Upper Tonkin. Later, he led the short-lived Republic of Formosa as its second and final leader.

Armed with the newest weaponry, other “Flag Gangs” broke away into robber gangs and pillaged the remains of the Lan Xang kingdom. Up until 1890, when the last of the factions finally split, they fought against the inept armies of King Rama V (r. 1868–1910) in the Haw wars, which were misnamed because they were confused with Chinese Muslims.

Death toll

Estimates of the Taiping Rebellion’s death toll are hypothetical because there was no trustworthy census conducted at the time. According to the most often quoted figures, between 20 and 30 million troops and civilians were killed during the almost 14-year uprising. Famine and disease were blamed for the majority of the deaths. According to some researchers, there may have been as many as 100 million fatalities.

Concurrent rebellions

The Qing dynasty continued to face significant challenges from the Nian Rebellion (1853–1868) as well as a number of Chinese Muslim uprisings in the northwest (Dungan insurrection, 1862–1877) and southwest (Panthay rebellion, 1855–1873).

The Nian rebels and Taiping soldiers occasionally worked together; this was the case during the Northern Expedition. Former Taiping leaders and troops, including as Lai Wenguang, were assimilated into Nian ranks when the Taiping insurrection waned, especially after Nanjing fell in 1864.

The Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) failed to seize Guangzhou, and its warriors fled north into Jiangxi, where they allied themselves with Shi Dakai. The remaining members of the Li Yonghe and Lan Chaoding revolt joined Taiping troops in Shaanxi following their loss in Sichuan. The Taiping army reassembled with remnants of the Shanghai rebellion of the Small Swords Society.

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had communication with Du Wenxiu, the leader of the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan. He was anti-Qing and sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty, not the Han Chinese, who were the target of his insurrection. Numerous non-Muslim armies, including Han Chinese, Li, Bai, and Hani peoples, were commanded by Du’s army. Other hill tribes, including non-Muslim Shan and Kachin people, helped them in the uprising.

The Dungan revolution, the other Muslim uprising, was the opposite; its leader, Ma Hualong, had taken an imperial title, therefore it had no intention of overthrowing the Qing empire. Rather, it was the product of intersectional conflict between Han Chinese and Muslim groups. Different factions engaged in conflict with one another throughout the Dungan uprising, without a clear objective.

According to contemporary scholars, the Dungan revolt started in 1862 as a result of local riots and brawls that were sparked by unimportant factors, such as unfounded accusations that the Hui Muslims were supporting the Taiping rebels.

According to the Hui Ma Xiaoshi, the Taiping was linked to the Shaanxi Muslim uprising. According to Jonathan Spence, the Taiping’s failure to coordinate their insurrection with other rebellions was a major factor in its loss.

Relationship with the Western powers

The Taiping administration had a conflicted relationship with the Western nations who were involved in China at the time. The Taiping leadership viewed Westerners as “brothers and sisters from overseas” because of the religious elements of the uprising. Western missionaries found the Taiping regime very hospitable. In order to help run his government, Hong Xiuquan summoned American missionary Issachar Jacox Roberts to Nanjing in 1853. Roberts was appointed director of foreign relations by Hong after meeting with him when he arrived in Nanjing in 1861.

Western cynicism prevailed from the beginning of the Taiping revolt, despite the fact that certain missionaries, like as Roberts, were excited about it in the early years. Historian Prescott Clarke claims that Westerners in China split into two camps over the rebellion: one group portrayed the rebels as merely robbers who wanted to gain money by overthrowing the Qing, while the other group portrayed the rebel army as religious fanatics who were incited to fight to the death by cunning leaders.

Early on, the Western countries’ government officials were hopeful that the Taiping administration would prevail. Historian Eugene P. Boardman claims that US and British officials were being frustrated by the Qing dynasty’s implementation of the 1842–1844 pact, particularly with regard to unrestricted commerce. Boardman claims that the Taiping’s Christian identity created the opportunity for a more cordial trading relationship. Between 1863 and 1864, a number of Western dignitaries traveled to Taiping, and American commissioner Robert Milligan McLane contemplated formally recognizing the Taiping government.

Clarke claims that after more examination of the uprising, the Western missionaries had a change of heart. The American missionary Divie Bethune McCartee wrote a letter that encapsulated the shift. When McCartee visited Nanjing, he characterized the city’s state as “Dreadful destruction of life.

” McCartee stated, “I saw no signs of anything resembling Christianity in or near [Nanjing]” in reference to the city’s genuine Christian practice. Like McCartee, I. J. Roberts, Hong’s director of foreign relations, observed, “His religious toleration, and multiplicity of chapels turns out to be a farce, of no avail in the spread of Christianity—worse than useless.”

In February 1861, Sir James Hope, an officer in the Royal Navy, led an expedition to Nanjing following the end of the Second Opium War. With two French delegates, several British military officers, businesspeople, missionaries, and other unofficial observers, this trip was the biggest group of Westerners to visit Taiping territory. Some expedition participants noted that “devastation marked our journey” after seeing the capital, referring to the circumstances in Taiping regions. According to some stories, the Taiping army massacred citizens in freshly occupied districts with considerable indiscriminateness.

Hope briefly traveled to Nanjing in late 1861 in an attempt to reach a deal with the Taiping rebels that would prevent them from attacking Shanghai; however, the Taiping government rejected this offer. According to Clarke, the British and French only partially intervened against the uprising in the years that followed as a result of this reluctance of collaboration and Taiping’s capture of Ningbo in December. The concern that a victorious uprising would make China more resilient to Western influence was another reason why the West supported the Qing.

Total war

There was a complete war during the Taiping Rebellion. In order to battle against the Qing imperial armies, nearly every person who had not left the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was drafted into the army and given military training. One adult man was to be drafted into the army from each family under the Taiping household registration system.

It became common practice for both sides to slaughter the people of cities, destroy the agricultural areas of the other side, and generally demand a harsh price from the occupants of captured enemy lands in an attempt to severely undermine the opposition’s war effort.

During this conflict, both sides attempted to deny each other the resources they required to continue the war. This war was complete in the sense that both sides’ armies fought against both the military and the civilian population, and both sides’ people contributed significantly to the war effort. The extent of desolation that resulted from the fighting in rural regions is described in contemporary sources.

The Taiping promptly wiped off the entire Manchu population in every region they took. One Qing loyalist who witnessed the horrific killings carried out by the Taiping troops against the Manchus in the province of Hunan claimed that the “pitiful Manchus”—men, women, and children—were put to death by the Taiping soldiers.

In Hefei, the Taiping rebels were observed shouting as they massacred the Manchus. Approximately 40,000 Manchu civilians were slaughtered by Taiping army after they took Nanjing. Ten thousand Manchus were killed as they crossed the Yellow River at Cangzhou on October 27, 1853.

Qing soldiers forbade any rebels speaking this dialect from surrendering once the uprising started in Guangxi. One million people are said to have been put to death in the province of Guangdong since the Qing dynasty massacred up to 30,000 Hakkas a day at its height following the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. These mass killings of citizens took place in Anhui and Nanjing, among other places in China. This led to a large-scale civilian flight, a high death toll, the destruction of almost 600 villages, and other brutal measures.

Legacy

In addition to causing immense economic and human destruction, the Taiping Rebellion brought about reforms in the late Qing empire. There was a greater number of ethnic Han Chinese officials in prominent positions than before, and power was somewhat decentralized. Gentry-organized local troops progressively supplanted the traditional Manchu banner forces that the Qing empire relied on.

These developed into armies that were employed by regional warlords who controlled China following the collapse of the Qing empire, according to Franz H. Michael. However, because the troops established to suppress the Taiping functioned in a different environment than subsequent regional armies, Diana Lary noted research that were doubtful of these assertions in a review-of-the-field paper.

The insurgent organization model of Taiping, which combined extreme social equality with Christianity, had an impact on Sun Yat-sen and other later revolutionaries. The Revive China Society, whose Christian members formed the short-lived Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun in 1903, included several Taiping soldiers. Karl Marx authored a number of papers about the Taipings, but he only saw violence and devastation rather than a social program or agenda for change.

However, in accordance with Mao Zedong’s example, Chinese Communist historians described the insurrection as a proto-communist movement. During the Chinese Civil War, Taiping’s structure and tactics were examined by both Communist and Nationalist leaders. The campaigns of Zeng Guofan were commended by American General Joseph Stilwell, who led Chinese forces throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War, for fusing “caution with daring” and “initiative with perseverance.”

Particularly in the Yangtze delta, famine, sickness, killings, and social unrest caused a precipitous drop in population. For the first time in millennia, there was a labor scarcity as a result, which made labor comparatively more expensive than land. Due to the scorched earth tactics employed by the Xiang Army and their refusal to accept captives, Anhui, Southern Jiangsu, Northern Zhejiang, and Northern Jiangxi had to be heavily populated with Henan migrants. Both the concentration of land ownership and the number of landed gentry in the Lower Yangtze area decreased.

Hunanese presence in the government increased dramatically when Hunan armed forces put an end to the Taiping Rebellion, and they contributed to reform initiatives. Of the eight viceroys, five were Hunanese by 1865. Because of their experience with the Taiping, the Hunanese aristocracy were more resistant to Western influence than those in other provinces.

Due to the disruption of commerce in many parts of the kingdom caused by the revolt, merchants in Shanxi and the Huizhou province of Anhui lost their prominence. However, compared to commerce in interior areas, trade in coastal regions—particularly in Guangzhou and Ningbo—was less impacted by violence. Shanghai, which had previously been less economically significant than other nearby cities, saw economic growth as a result of the influx of migrants. Since the Qing mostly destroyed Taiping-published records in an effort to alter the conflict’s history, hardly a tenth of them remain today.

John King Fairbank, a historian, draws a comparison between the Taiping rebels and the communists led by Mao Zedong a century later:

They shared some traditional Chinese interests, including establishing and upholding doctrinal orthodoxy, attracting a talented elite, achieving an ideal social order, and building military might based on farmer-soldiers, in addition to the fervor, vigor, and puritanical discipline so frequently found in new political movements. Additionally, both utilized foreign beliefs that needed to be translated into Chinese, inevitably resulting in changes.

In popular culture

Historical books have been written about the Taiping Rebellion. Mandarin, written by Robert Elegant in 1983, tells the story of a Jewish family in Shanghai at that period.[116] The fictitious Harry Paget Flashman describes his experiences during the Taiping Rebellion and the Second Opium War in Flashman and the Dragon. The titular character in Lisa See’s book Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is married to a guy who resides in Jintian, and the other characters become entangled in the drama.

The Hundred Secret Senses by Amy Tan is partially set during the Taiping Rebellion. Katherine Paterson’s young adult book Rebels of the Heavenly Kingdom takes place during the Taiping Rebellion. The setting of Li Bo’s Tienkuo: The Heavenly Kingdom is Nanjing, the capital of Taiping.

A few movies and television series have also portrayed the battle. TVB produced Twilight of a Nation, a 45-episode drama series on the Taiping Rebellion, in Hong Kong in 1988. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, a 46-episode series on the Taiping Rebellion, was produced by China Central Television in 2000. The Shan Regiment’s commander, Gen. Pang Qinyun, is credited with capturing Suzhou and Nanjing in the 2007 historical drama The Warlords, which is set in the 1860s.

Some Facts About Taiping Rebellion

1. Duration: The Taiping Rebellion lasted from 1850 to 1864, making it one of the longest civil wars in Chinese history.
2. Leader: The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, a failed scholar who believed he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ.
3. Religious Origins: Hong Xiuquan founded a quasi-Christian movement, which he called the “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” (Taiping Tianguo).
4. Christian Influence: The rebellion was heavily influenced by Christian teachings, though Hong’s version deviated significantly from traditional Christianity.
5. Goal: The Taiping’s primary goal was to overthrow the ruling Qing Dynasty and establish a new “Heavenly Kingdom.”
6. Ethnic Conflict: The rebellion had ethnic overtones, as the Taipings were predominantly Han Chinese, while the Qing Dynasty rulers were Manchus.
7. Location: The rebellion began in southern China, in the Guangxi province, before spreading to other parts of the country.
8. Social Reforms: The Taiping movement advocated for radical social reforms, including land redistribution, gender equality, and the abolition of the Confucian system.
9. Taiping Army: The Taipings developed a large and disciplined army, known for its strict moral code and distinctive uniforms.
10. Heavenly Capital: In 1853, the Taipings captured Nanjing and declared it their capital, renaming it Tianjing (Heavenly Capital).
11. Women’s Roles: Women played an unprecedented role in the Taiping Rebellion, serving in both military and administrative positions.
12. Anti-Qing Sentiment: The rebellion was fueled by widespread discontent with the Qing government’s corruption, heavy taxation, and inability to deal with natural disasters.
13. Population Loss: The Taiping Rebellion led to the deaths of an estimated 20 to 30 million people, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history.
14. Heavenly King: Hong Xiuquan declared himself the “Heavenly King” and claimed divine right to rule China.
15. Land Reforms: The Taipings proposed a system where all land would be owned communally and distributed based on family size and need.
16. Ban on Foot Binding: The Taiping government outlawed the practice of foot binding, which was a common custom in China at the time.
17. Abolition of Opium: The Taiping regime banned the production and consumption of opium, which had devastated parts of China.
18. Destruction of Confucian Temples: The Taipings destroyed Confucian temples and promoted their own version of Christianity as the state religion.
19. Economic Disruption: The rebellion severely disrupted the Chinese economy, particularly in the Yangtze River valley, which was a major economic hub.
20. Suppression of Qing Loyalists: The Taipings systematically targeted Qing loyalists, often massacring officials and their families.
21. International Interest: The rebellion attracted attention from Western powers, including Britain and France, though they eventually supported the Qing government.
22. Zeng Guofan: A key figure in the Qing’s counter-rebellion was Zeng Guofan, a scholar-official who raised the Xiang Army to fight the Taipings.
23. Charles “Chinese” Gordon: British officer Charles Gordon, known as “Chinese Gordon,” played a key role in the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, leading the Ever Victorious Army.
24. Taiping Bureaucracy: The Taipings established their own bureaucratic system, complete with ministers and government officials to administer their territories.
25. Yang Xiuqing: Yang Xiuqing, one of Hong’s top lieutenants, declared himself the “East King” and played a significant role in early Taiping successes before being assassinated.
26. Siege of Nanjing: Nanjing was besieged by Qing forces for almost a decade before it was finally recaptured in 1864.
27. Heavenly Kingdom’s Decline: The Taiping government became increasingly authoritarian and corrupt, which contributed to its eventual downfall.
28. Western Mercenaries: Western mercenaries, such as Frederick Townsend Ward, led foreign-trained Chinese troops in fighting against the Taipings.
29. Taiping Belief System: The Taiping belief system was a mix of Christianity, Chinese folk religion, and Hong’s personal revelations.
30. Equal Distribution of Resources: The Taipings promoted the equal distribution of wealth, though in practice this was difficult to implement.
31. Corruption within Taiping Leadership: As the rebellion progressed, corruption and internal strife plagued the leadership, weakening the movement.
32. Divine Visions: Hong Xiuquan claimed to have had divine visions in which he received a mandate from God to rid China of the “demons” (the Qing rulers).
33. Heavenly Dynasty: The Taipings envisioned a new dynastic era led by Hong Xiuquan and his family, with a divinely ordained hierarchy.
34. Taiping Education System: The Taipings sought to replace traditional Confucian education with a new curriculum based on their religious and social principles.
35. Bitter Rivalries: Intense rivalries developed between Taiping leaders, particularly between Hong Xiuquan and other high-ranking generals like Shi Dakai.
36. Naval Warfare: The Taiping Rebellion included significant naval engagements along the Yangtze River, with both sides attempting to control the vital waterway.
37. Suppression of Religion: Despite being religious themselves, the Taipings suppressed traditional Chinese religious practices, which alienated many followers.
38. Manchu Killings: The Taipings conducted mass killings of Manchu civilians, leading to genocidal violence in areas they controlled.
39. Foreign Advisors: Both the Qing and Taiping sides employed foreign military advisors, which introduced new tactics and technologies into the conflict.
40. Shi Dakai’s Defection: Shi Dakai, one of the top Taiping commanders, defected from the movement in 1857, weakening the rebellion’s military leadership.
41. Destruction of Cities: Many major Chinese cities, including Nanjing and Hangzhou, were destroyed or severely damaged during the conflict.
42. Hakka Ethnic Group: Many Taiping leaders, including Hong Xiuquan, were from the Hakka ethnic minority, which contributed to the movement’s social base.
43. Qing Defenses: The Qing Dynasty, initially caught off-guard, gradually reorganized and mounted an effective defense through regional militias and loyalist forces.
44. Ever Victorious Army: The Ever Victorious Army was a Qing military force led by Western officers, including Charles Gordon, and played a crucial role in defeating the Taipings.
45. Peasant Support: The Taiping movement gained significant support from the rural peasantry, who were disillusioned with Qing rule and hoped for social reform.
46. Strict Moral Code: The Taiping leaders imposed a strict moral code, banning practices like gambling, prostitution, and alcohol consumption.
47. Fall of Nanjing: The fall of Nanjing in 1864 marked the end of the Taiping Rebellion and the collapse of the Heavenly Kingdom.
48. Impact on Qing Dynasty: Although the Qing Dynasty survived the rebellion, it was severely weakened and had to rely heavily on foreign aid and internal reform.
49. Foreign Neutrality: Early in the rebellion, foreign powers like Britain and France remained neutral, but they later sided with the Qing government to protect their economic interests.
50. Role of the Green Standard Army: The Green Standard Army, a key military force in the Qing Dynasty, played a crucial role in fighting the Taipings.
51. Economic Collapse: The regions affected by the rebellion, particularly the Yangtze River delta, experienced severe economic collapse due to the prolonged conflict.
52. Imperial Edicts: The Qing government issued numerous edicts declaring the Taipings as rebels and traitors, mobilizing both Han and Manchu officials against them.
53. Impact on Chinese Society: The Taiping Rebellion had a lasting impact on Chinese society, contributing to the rise of modern revolutionary movements.
54. Nian Rebellion: The Taiping Rebellion coincided with other uprisings, such as the Nian Rebellion, further destabilizing China during this period.
55. Religious Conversion: Hong Xiuquan’s personal interpretation of Christianity attracted tens of thousands of followers, leading to mass religious conversions.
56. Zuo Zongtang: Zuo Zongtang, a prominent Qing general, played a significant role in the final suppression of the Taiping forces.
57. Societal Divide: The rebellion deepened social divides in China, pitting the rural poor against the urban elite and traditional authorities.
58. Weakening of Qing Legitimacy: The rebellion exposed the Qing Dynasty’s weaknesses, leading to further challenges to its legitimacy and authority.
59. Environmental Damage: The widespread fighting led to environmental degradation, including the destruction of farmland and deforestation in many areas.
60. Use of Firearms: Both the Taiping and Qing forces used modern firearms, including muskets and cannons, obtained from Western sources.
61. Cultural Suppression: The Taipings sought to suppress traditional Chinese culture, including Confucianism, which they viewed as corrupt and outdated.
62. End of Taiping Leadership: Hong Xiuquan’s death in 1864 effectively marked the end of the Taiping leadership, though isolated resistance continued for some time.
63. Taiping Gender Policies: The Taipings promoted greater gender equality, with women allowed to serve in the army and participate in government.
64. Heavenly Currency: The Taiping government minted its own currency, which it used in the territories under its control.
65. Taiping Civil Service Exams: The Taipings established their own civil service exams, based on religious teachings rather than Confucian classics.
66. Lack of International Support: Despite their anti-Qing stance, the Taipings failed to gain significant support from foreign powers, who were wary of their religious extremism.
67. Legacy of Hong Xiuquan: Hong Xiuquan’s legacy remains controversial in Chinese history, with some viewing him as a visionary reformer and others as a dangerous fanatic.
68. Impact on Western Perceptions: The rebellion shaped Western perceptions of China, as foreign powers became increasingly involved in Chinese internal affairs.
69. Lasting Reforms: The Qing Dynasty introduced some reforms in the aftermath of the rebellion, though they were largely conservative in nature.
70. Taiping Doctrine: The Taiping religious doctrine emphasized strict adherence to Hong Xiuquan’s teachings, including the destruction of idols and rejection of Confucianism.
71. Imperial Regicide Attempts: The Taipings made multiple attempts to assassinate key Qing figures, including Emperor Xianfeng, though these efforts were unsuccessful.
72. Hong’s Final Days: Hong Xiuquan spent his final days in isolation within Nanjing before dying, likely by poison or illness, as the city fell to Qing forces.
73. Suppression of Dissidents: The Taiping regime suppressed internal dissidents, executing those who questioned Hong Xiuquan’s leadership.
74. Hong’s Family: Hong Xiuquan’s family members held significant positions within the Taiping government, solidifying the movement’s dynastic character.
75. Qing Military Innovations: The Qing military adopted new tactics and technologies, including Western artillery, in response to the challenges posed by the Taipings.
76. Revival of Confucianism: After the rebellion, the Qing government sought to revive Confucianism as a means of restoring social order and reinforcing traditional values.
77. Taiping Artifacts: Artifacts from the Taiping Rebellion, including weapons, uniforms, and documents, are now preserved in museums and collections worldwide.
78. Impact on Future Revolutions: The Taiping Rebellion served as a precursor to later revolutionary movements in China, including the Boxer Rebellion and the 1911 Revolution.
79. Chinese Historiography: The Taiping Rebellion has been the subject of extensive study in Chinese historiography, with differing interpretations by scholars over the years.
80. Cultural Revival Movements: The rebellion inspired subsequent cultural revival movements in China, including efforts to reform Chinese society and governance in the late 19th century.

Some Mysteries About Taiping Rebellion

1. Hong Xiuquan’s Visions: Did Hong Xiuquan truly believe in his visions of being the brother of Jesus Christ, or were they a calculated ploy to gain power?
2. Origins of Hong’s Madness: Was Hong Xiuquan mentally ill, and if so, how did his possible delusions shape the course of the rebellion?
3. Mysterious Conversion: How did a man who failed the imperial exams multiple times come to the conclusion that he was divinely chosen?
4. Foreign Christian Influence: Why didn’t Western Christian missionaries support the Taiping Rebellion despite its Christian roots?
5. Divine Intent: Did Hong Xiuquan genuinely believe his mission was divinely ordained, or did he fabricate his religious claims for personal gain?
6. Unclear Leadership: Why did Hong retreat into isolation in the later years of the rebellion, leaving much of the leadership to his subordinates?
7. Mystery of the Lost Kingdom: Why did the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom lose internal cohesion even after achieving several major victories against the Qing?
8. Symbolism of the “Heavenly Kingdom”: What symbolic meanings were encoded in the title “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” that inspired so many followers?
9. Corruption of Taiping Officials: How did the leadership of a movement rooted in moral purity become so corrupt in later years?
10. Role of the Bible: Why did Hong Xiuquan’s interpretation of the Bible deviate so radically from traditional Christian teachings?
11. Hidden Agenda of Taiping Officials: Were high-ranking Taiping leaders like Yang Xiuqing and Shi Dakai truly loyal to Hong, or did they have secret ambitions?
12. Disunity among Commanders: What caused the deep rifts and factionalism among the top commanders, leading to internal assassinations and betrayal?
13. Hong’s Relationship with God: Did Hong Xiuquan’s belief in his divine kinship ever waver, or was it manipulated for political reasons?
14. Shi Dakai’s Defection: Why did one of the most competent Taiping generals, Shi Dakai, suddenly defect and attempt to form his own rebel faction?
15. End of Shi Dakai: How was Shi Dakai captured and executed by the Qing, and why didn’t he resist more effectively?
16. Collapse of the Taiping Vision: Why did the Taiping’s radical vision of social equality and Christian governance disintegrate as they gained more power?
17. Mysterious Death of Yang Xiuqing: Was Yang Xiuqing, the “East King,” truly plotting to overthrow Hong, or was his assassination the result of power struggles within the movement?
18. Death of Hong’s Son: Why was Hong’s teenage son, who was named his successor, unable to maintain control after his father’s death?
19. Heavenly Kingdom’s Early Successes: How did the Taipings manage to win so many initial victories against the better-equipped Qing forces despite lacking military experience?
20. Hong’s Religious Transformation: What was the turning point that led Hong to deviate from traditional Confucianism and embrace his unique version of Christianity?
21. Mystery of Gender Equality: Why were the Taiping leaders so progressive in advocating for women’s rights, such as female soldiers and bureaucrats, in a deeply patriarchal society?
22. Hong Xiuquan’s Isolation: What drove Hong to retreat into spiritual isolation, particularly during the most crucial phases of the rebellion?
23. Ghost Armies: Was there any truth to rumors that the Taipings believed in an invisible divine army fighting alongside them in battle?
24. Taiping’s Heavenly Currency: Why did the Taiping currency fail despite their control over large territories and resources?
25. Unexplained Qing Victories: Why were the Qing suddenly able to win decisive victories after years of defeats, despite having a demoralized army?
26. Role of Foreign Powers: Why did foreign powers like Britain and France initially maintain neutrality but then intervene against the Taipings later in the conflict?
27. Failure of Taiping Diplomacy: Why did the Taipings fail to secure meaningful diplomatic support from Western countries, even though they adopted Christian rhetoric?
28. Hong’s Final Days: What exactly caused Hong Xiuquan’s death? Some say illness, while others speculate that he may have been poisoned.
29. Theological Rationale: Why did Hong Xiuquan believe that he had been chosen to overthrow the “demonic” Qing rulers, specifically targeting the Manchu minority?
30. Yang Xiuqing’s Divine Possession: Yang Xiuqing claimed to be possessed by the Holy Spirit. Was this a genuine belief, or a manipulative political strategy?
31. Disappearance of Artifacts: Why have so few relics or documents from the Taiping government survived, despite the rebellion’s massive scale and influence?
32. Divine Punishment Belief: Did the Taipings truly believe that their failure was a form of divine punishment for not adhering strictly enough to their principles?
33. Unusual Tactics: The Taipings often used unconventional tactics in battle. Were these based on military genius or religious fanaticism?
34. The Sacred City of Nanjing: Why did Hong Xiuquan focus so much on Nanjing as his “Heavenly Capital”? Did it have religious or symbolic significance beyond strategic value?
35. Role of Hong’s Family: Why did Hong Xiuquan elevate his family members to such high positions, despite their lack of military or administrative experience?
36. Supernatural Beliefs: Were the Taipings influenced by supernatural beliefs beyond Christianity, including elements of traditional Chinese folk religion?
37. Mysterious Heavenly Laws: Many of the laws in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were strict and unusual. Were they divinely inspired or products of paranoia?
38. The Role of Women Soldiers: Did women truly serve as effective soldiers in the Taiping army, or were their roles exaggerated by historical accounts?
39. Hong’s Disconnection from Reality: As the rebellion wore on, Hong became increasingly disconnected from day-to-day governance. Was this a symptom of mental illness?
40. Mystery of Foreign Indifference: Why didn’t foreign powers, especially Christian missionaries, support Hong Xiuquan’s Christian rebellion more openly?
41. Hong’s Failure to Capitalize on Qing Weakness: After Qing losses in the Opium Wars, why didn’t Hong Xiuquan more effectively exploit the Qing’s vulnerability?
42. Missing Chronicles: Many records from the Taiping Rebellion are missing or destroyed. What valuable insights into the rebellion have been lost to history?
43. The East and West Kings’ Rivalry: What was the true cause of the rivalry between Hong Xiuquan’s close aides Yang Xiuqing and Wei Changhui, leading to Yang’s assassination?
44. Hong’s Changing Religious Views: Why did Hong Xiuquan’s religious rhetoric shift over time, from an emphasis on equality and salvation to divine authoritarianism?
45. Unexplained Generosity: Despite their brutality, the Taipings were sometimes known for acts of mercy and generosity. What motivated this inconsistency?
46. Abandoned Social Reforms: Why did the Taipings gradually abandon their initial vision of radical land redistribution and communal living?
47. Qing Tactics of Psychological Warfare: Did the Qing use psychological warfare against the Taipings, planting rumors or manipulating public perception?
48. Defection of Key Generals: Why did so many high-ranking Taiping generals, such as Shi Dakai, eventually desert the movement?
49. Failed Religious Outreach: Despite the religious overtones of the rebellion, why were the Taipings unable to win over more followers from other religious or philosophical traditions in China?
50. Mass Suicides: In several instances, entire Taiping garrisons committed suicide rather than surrender. Was this motivated by religious conviction or fear of torture?
51. Role of Qing Spies: How did Qing spies infiltrate the Taiping ranks, and what impact did their intelligence-gathering have on the outcome of key battles?
52. Weapons from the West: How did the Qing secure advanced weaponry from Western nations, and why were the Taipings unable to do the same on a larger scale?
53. Impact of the Opium Trade: How did the British opium trade influence the rebellion? Did opium addiction play a role in the weakening of both sides?
54. Failure to Secure Coastal Cities: Why didn’t the Taipings, despite their military successes, ever focus on securing China’s coastal regions, which could have attracted foreign aid?
55. Hong’s Claim to Mandate of Heaven: Why did Hong Xiuquan believe he had inherited the Mandate of Heaven from the Qing, and how did he justify this claim to his followers?
56. Military Defeats in the North: Why did the Taiping Rebellion fail so dramatically in northern campaigns, despite their earlier successes in the south?
57. Spiritual Rejection by Rural Communities: Why did many rural communities reject the Taiping movement, despite its promises of land reform and equality?
58. Decentralized Qing Resistance: How did regional Qing officials, such as Zeng Guofan, manage to raise loyalist armies when the central Qing government appeared so weak?
59. Heavenly King’s Palace Intrigues: What secretive political intrigues took place within Hong Xiuquan’s court in Nanjing that led to factional strife?
60. Failed Capture of Beijing: Why did the Taiping forces, despite their strength, fail to capture Beijing, the symbolic heart of Qing power?
61. Hong’s Reclusive Death: Why did Hong Xiuquan reportedly refuse to fight in his final days, retreating into prayer and isolation as the rebellion collapsed?
62. Foreign Mercenaries’ Role: What role did foreign mercenaries like Frederick Townsend Ward play in defeating the Taipings, and why did they choose to side with the Qing?
63. Impact of Qing Corruption: How did the endemic corruption within the Qing government affect their ability to respond to the Taiping threat?
64. Unfulfilled Prophecies: Hong Xiuquan made many prophecies about the future of his Heavenly Kingdom. Why did so many of these remain unfulfilled?
65. Inconsistent Religious Practices: Despite their claim to be Christians, many Taiping rituals and practices had more in common with traditional Chinese religions. Why?
66. Taiping Medicine: The Taipings claimed to possess special knowledge of healing and medicine. Did they develop any unique medical practices?
67. Mystical Recruitment Methods: How did the Taipings use mysticism and religious rhetoric to recruit such a large number of followers from diverse backgrounds?
68. Disappearance of Taiping Leaders: What happened to the lower-ranking leaders of the rebellion after its defeat? Were any of them able to escape and start new movements?
69. Religious Artifacts: Did the Taipings create any religious artifacts or sacred texts that have yet to be discovered by historians?
70. Rejection of Confucianism: Why did Hong Xiuquan believe so strongly in the need to completely eradicate Confucianism, rather than adapt it to his Christian worldview?
71. The Role of Manchu-Han Tensions: To what extent was the Taiping Rebellion fueled by ethnic tensions between the Manchu rulers and the majority Han Chinese population?
72. Qing Secret Police: How did the Qing government’s secret police operate during the rebellion, and did they infiltrate the highest ranks of the Taiping leadership?
73. Spiritual Warfare Beliefs: Did Hong Xiuquan and his followers believe they were engaged in a literal spiritual war between Heaven and Hell?
74. The Taiping Attitude Toward Opium: Why did the Taipings take a strict stance against opium use when it was so widespread in Chinese society?
75. Unfinished Taiping Scripture: Hong Xiuquan claimed to have received divine revelations, yet much of his scripture remains incomplete or missing. What secrets might it contain?
76. Inconsistencies in Hong’s Personal Life: How did Hong reconcile his own lifestyle with the strict moral code he imposed on his followers?
77. The Lost Taiping Generals: Several of the top generals of the rebellion mysteriously disappeared or defected. What were their fates, and why did they leave?
78. Foreign Advisors to the Qing: Why did several foreign advisors, particularly British and American, choose to support the Qing over the Taiping movement?
79. Evolving Doctrine: Why did Hong Xiuquan’s religious and political ideology evolve over the course of the rebellion, growing increasingly authoritarian and detached from reality?
80. Legacy in Modern China: Why is the Taiping Rebellion remembered with such ambivalence in modern Chinese history, neither fully vilified nor celebrated?

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