Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking: A Brilliant Mind in Theoretical Physics

Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018), was an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author who served as the director of research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology at the University of Cambridge. Between 1979 and 2009, he held the Lucasian Professorship of Mathematics at Cambridge, a position considered one of the most prestigious academic posts in the world.

Stephen Hawking was born in Oxford into a family of physicians. In October 1959, at 17, he began his university education at University College, Oxford, where he received a first-class BA degree in physics. In October 1962, he started his graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where, in March 1966, he obtained his PhD in applied mathematics and theoretical physics, specializing in general relativity and cosmology. In 1963, at age 21, Hawking was diagnosed with an early-onset slow-progressing form of motor neuron disease that gradually, over decades, paralyzed him. After losing his speech, he communicated through a speech-generating device, initially through a handheld switch, and eventually by using a single cheek muscle.

Hawking’s scientific contributions included a collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity and the theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation. Initially controversial, Hawking radiation was widely accepted as a significant breakthrough in theoretical physics by the late 1970s, following further research. Hawking was the first to propose a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. He was a vigorous supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.

Stephen Hawking achieved commercial success with several works of popular science in which he discussed his theories and cosmology in general. His book, A Brief History of Time, appeared on the Sunday Times bestseller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. Hawking was a Fellow of the Royal Society, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. In 2002, he was ranked number 25 in the BBC’s poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Stephen Hawking died in 2018 at the age of 76, having lived more than 50 years following his diagnosis of motor neuron disease.

Early Life

Family

Stephen Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 in Oxford to Frank and Isobel Eileen Hawking (née Walker). Hawking’s mother was born into a family of doctors in Glasgow, Scotland. His wealthy paternal great-grandfather, from Yorkshire, over-extended himself by buying farmland and then went bankrupt in the great agricultural depression during the early 20th century. His paternal great-grandmother saved the family from financial ruin by opening a school in their home. Despite their family’s financial constraints, both parents attended the University of Oxford, where Frank studied medicine and Isobel studied Philosophy, Politics, and Economics. Isobel worked as a secretary for a medical research institute, and Frank was a medical researcher. Hawking had two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward Frank David (1955–2003).

In 1950, when Hawking’s father became head of the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research, the family moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire. In St Albans, the family was considered highly intelligent and somewhat eccentric; meals were often spent with each person silently reading a book. They lived a frugal existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house and traveled in a converted London taxicab. During one of Hawking’s father’s frequent absences working in Africa, the rest of the family spent four months in Mallorca visiting his mother’s friend Beryl and her husband, the poet Robert Graves.

Primary and Secondary School Years

Stephen Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School in Highgate, London. He later blamed its “progressive methods” for his failure to learn to read while at the school. In St Albans, the eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans High School for Girls for a few months, as younger boys could attend one of the houses at that time.

Hawking attended two private (fee-paying) schools: first, Radlett School, and from September 1952, St Albans School, Hertfordshire, after passing the eleven-plus a year early. The family placed a high value on education. Hawking’s father wanted his son to attend Westminster School, but the 13-year-old Hawking was ill on the day of the scholarship examination. His family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans. A positive consequence was that Hawking remained close to a group of friends with whom he enjoyed board games, manufacturing fireworks, model airplanes, and boats, and long discussions about Christianity and extrasensory perception. From 1958 on, with the help of mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta, they built a computer from clock parts, an old telephone switchboard, and other recycled components.

Although known at school as “Einstein”, Hawking was not initially successful academically. With time, he began to show considerable aptitude for scientific subjects and, inspired by Tahta, decided to read mathematics at university. Hawking’s father advised him to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates. He also wanted his son to attend University College, Oxford, his alma mater. As it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry. Despite his headmaster’s advice to wait until the next year, Hawking was awarded a scholarship after taking the examinations in March 1959.

Undergraduate Years

Stephen Hawking began his university education at University College, Oxford, in October 1959 at 17. For the first eighteen months, he was bored and lonely, finding the academic work “ridiculously easy.” His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said, “It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it.” A change occurred during his second and third years when, according to Berman, Hawking made more of an effort “to be one of the boys.” He developed into a popular, lively, and witty college member, interested in classical music and science fiction. Part of this transformation resulted from his decision to join the college boat club, the University College Boat Club, where he coxed a rowing crew. The rowing coach at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on risky courses that led to damaged boats.

Hawking estimated that he studied about 1,000 hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his finals a challenge, and he decided to answer only theoretical physics questions rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A first-class degree was a condition of acceptance for his planned graduate study in cosmology at the University of Cambridge. Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations, and the result was on the borderline between first- and second-class honors, making a viva (oral examination) with the Oxford examiners necessary.

Hawking was concerned that he was viewed as a lazy and difficult student. So, when asked at the viva to describe his plans, he said, “If you award me a First, I will go to Cambridge. If I receive a Second, I shall stay in Oxford, so I expect you will give me a First.” He was held in higher regard than he believed; as Berman commented, the examiners “were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of themselves.” After receiving a first-class BA degree in physics and completing a trip to Iran with a friend, he began his graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in October 1962.

Post-Graduate Years

Stephen Hawking‘s first year as a doctoral student was difficult. He was initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned Dennis William Sciama, one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than the noted astronomer Fred Hoyle. Additionally, he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work in general relativity and cosmology. After being diagnosed with motor neuron disease, Hawking fell into a depression. Though his doctors advised him to continue with his studies, he felt there was little point. His disease progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported, and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With Sciama’s encouragement, he returned to his work.

Hawking started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashness when he publicly challenged the work of Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikar at a lecture in June 1964. When Hawking began his doctoral studies, there was much debate in the physics community about the prevailing theories of the creation of the universe: the Big Bang and Steady State theories. Inspired by Roger Penrose’s theorem of a spacetime singularity in the center of black holes, Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe; and, in 1965, he wrote his thesis on this topic. Hawking‘s thesis was approved in 1966.

There were other positive developments: Hawking received a research fellowship at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge; he obtained his PhD degree in applied mathematics and theoretical physics, specializing in general relativity and cosmology, in March 1966; and his essay “Singularities and the Geometry of Space-Time” shared top honors with one by Penrose to win that year’s prestigious Adams Prize.

Career

1966–1975

In his work, and collaboration with Roger Penrose, Stephen Hawking extended the singularity theorem concepts first explored in his doctoral thesis. This included not only the existence of singularities but also the theory that the universe might have started as a singularity. Their joint essay was the runner-up in the 1968 Gravity Research Foundation competition. In 1970, they published proof that if the universe obeys the general theory of relativity and fits any of the models of physical cosmology developed by Alexander Friedmann, then it must have begun as a singularity. In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially created Fellowship for Distinction in Science to remain at Caius.

In 1970, Hawking postulated what became known as the second law of black hole dynamics: that the event horizon of a black hole can never get smaller. With James M. Bardeen and Brandon Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics. To Hawking‘s irritation, Jacob Bekenstein, a graduate student of John Wheeler, went further—and ultimately correctly—to apply thermodynamic concepts literally.

In the early 1970s, Hawking‘s work with Carter, Werner Israel, and David C. Robinson strongly supported Wheeler’s no-hair theorem, which states that no matter what the original material from which a black hole is created, it can be completely described by the properties of mass, electrical charge, and rotation. His essay titled “Black Holes” won the Gravity Research Foundation Award in January 1971. Hawking‘s first book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, written with George Ellis, was published in 1973.

Beginning in 1973, Hawking moved into the study of quantum gravity and quantum mechanics. His work in this area was spurred by a visit to Moscow and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zel’dovich and Alexei Starobinsky, whose work showed that, according to the uncertainty principle, rotating black holes emit particles. To Hawking‘s annoyance, his much-checked calculations produced findings that contradicted his second law, which claimed black holes could never get smaller, and supported Bekenstein’s reasoning about their entropy.

His results, which Hawking presented in 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation, known today as Hawking radiation, which may continue until they exhaust their energy and evaporate. Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. By the late 1970s, and following the publication of further research, the discovery was widely accepted as a significant breakthrough in theoretical physics. Hawking was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974, a few weeks after the announcement of Hawking radiation. At the time, he was one of the youngest scientists to become a Fellow.

Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Visiting Professorship at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1974. He worked with a friend on the faculty, Kip Thorne, and engaged him in a scientific wager about whether the X-ray source Cygnus X-1 was a black hole. The wager was an “insurance policy” against the proposition that black holes did not exist. Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990, a bet that was the first of several he was to make with Thorne and others. Hawking had maintained ties to Caltech, spending a month there almost every year since this first visit.

1975–1990

Stephen Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more academically senior post, as a reader in gravitational physics. The mid-to-late 1970s were a period of growing public interest in black holes and the physicists who were studying them. Hawking was regularly interviewed for print and television. He also received increasing academic recognition for his work. In 1975, he was awarded both the Eddington Medal and the Pius XI Gold Medal, and in 1976, the Dannie Heineman Prize, the Maxwell Medal and Prize, and the Hughes Medal. He was appointed a professor with a chair in gravitational physics in 1977. The following year, he received the Albert Einstein Medal and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford.

In 1979, Hawking was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. His inaugural lecture in this role was titled: “Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?” and proposed N = 8 supergravity as the leading theory to solve many of the outstanding problems physicists were studying. His promotion coincided with a health crisis, which led to his accepting, albeit reluctantly, some nursing services at home. At the same time, he was also making a transition in his approach to physics, becoming more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on mathematical proofs. “I would rather be right than rigorous,” he told Kip Thorne. In 1981, he proposed that information in a black hole is irretrievably lost when a black hole evaporates. This information paradox violates the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics and led to years of debate, including “The Black Hole War” with Leonard Susskind and Gerard ‘t Hooft.

Stephen Hawking played a pivotal role in the development and popularization of several groundbreaking theories in cosmology and quantum mechanics during the 1980s. Cosmological inflation – a theory proposing that following the Big Bang, the universe initially expanded incredibly rapidly before settling down to a slower expansion – was proposed by Alan Guth and also developed by Andrei Linde. Following a conference in Moscow in October 1981, Hawking and Gary Gibbons organized a three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 on “The Very Early Universe” at Cambridge University, a workshop that focused mainly on inflation theory. Hawking also began a new line of quantum theory research into the origin of the universe. In 1981, at a Vatican conference, he presented work suggesting that there might be no boundary – or beginning or ending – to the universe.

Hawking subsequently developed the research in collaboration with Jim Hartle, and in 1983 they published a model known as the Hartle–Hawking state. It proposed that before the Planck epoch, the universe had no boundary in space-time; before the Big Bang, time did not exist, and the concept of the beginning of the universe was meaningless. The initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models was replaced with a region akin to the North Pole. One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary there – it is simply the point where all north-running lines meet and end. Initially, the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe, which had implications about the existence of God. As Hawking explained, “If the universe has no boundaries but is self-contained… then God would not have had any freedom to choose how the universe began.”

Hawking did not rule out the existence of a Creator, asking in A Brief History of Time, “Is the unified theory so compelling that it brings about its existence?” He also stated, “If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason – for then we should know the mind of God”; in his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense. In the same book, he suggested that the existence of God was not necessary to explain the origin of the universe. Later discussions with Neil Turok led to the realization that the existence of God was also compatible with an open universe.

Further work by Hawking in the area of arrows of time led to the 1985 publication of a paper theorizing that if the no-boundary proposition were correct, then when the universe stopped expanding and eventually collapsed, time would run backward. A paper by Don Page and independent calculations by Raymond Laflamme led Hawking to withdraw this concept. Honors continued to be awarded: in 1981, he was awarded the American Franklin Medal, and in the 1982 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). These awards did not significantly change Hawking‘s financial status, and motivated by the need to finance his children’s education and home expenses, he decided in 1982 to write a popular book about the universe that would be accessible to the general public. Instead of publishing with an academic press, he signed a contract with Bantam Books, a mass-market publisher, and received a large advance for his book. The first draft of the book called A Brief History of Time, was completed in 1984.

One of the first messages Hawking produced with his speech-generating device was a request for his assistant to help him finish writing A Brief History of Time. Peter Guzzardi, his editor at Bantam, pushed him to explain his ideas clearly in non-technical language, a process that required many revisions from an increasingly irritated Hawking. The book was published in April 1988 in the US and in June in the UK, and it proved to be an extraordinary success, rising quickly to the top of best-seller lists in both countries and remaining there for months. The book was translated into many languages, and as of 2009, has sold an estimated 9 million copies.

Media attention was intense, and a Newsweek magazine cover and a television special both described him as the “Master of the Universe”. Success led to significant financial rewards, but also the challenges of celebrity status. Hawking traveled extensively to promote his work and enjoyed partying into the late hours. A difficulty in refusing the invitations and visitors left him limited time for work and his students. Some colleagues were resentful of the attention Hawking received, feeling it was due to his disability.

He received further academic recognition, including five more honorary degrees, the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1985), the Paul Dirac Medal (1987), and, jointly with Penrose, the prestigious Wolf Prize (1988). In the 1989 Birthday Honours, he was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH). He reportedly declined a knighthood in the late 1990s in objection to the UK’s science funding policy.

1990–2000

Stephen Hawking continued his groundbreaking work in physics throughout the 1990s. In 1993, he co-edited a significant book on Euclidean quantum gravity with Gary Gibbons and also published a collection of his influential articles on black holes and the Big Bang. The following year, at Cambridge’s Newton Institute, Hawking, along with Roger Penrose, presented a series of six lectures that were later compiled and published in 1996 under the title The Nature of Space and Time. In 1997, Hawking conceded a public scientific wager he had made in 1991 with Kip Thorne and John Preskill from Caltech. The bet had been regarding Penrose’s proposal of the “cosmic censorship conjecture”—the idea that there could be no “naked singularities” exposed outside a black hole’s event horizon.

After discovering his concession might have been premature, a new and more refined wager was established. This revised wager specified that such singularities would emerge without additional conditions. In the same year, Kip Thorne, Stephen Hawking, and John Preskill engaged in another debate concerning the black hole information paradox. Thorne and Hawking argued that, according to general relativity, black holes could not radiate or lose information, meaning that the mass energy and information associated with Hawking radiation must be “new” and not derived from within the black hole’s event horizon. This position implied that quantum mechanics would need to be rewritten to accommodate this contradiction. Preskill, however, contended that quantum mechanics suggests the information emitted by a black hole is related to information that had previously fallen in, indicating that the concept of black holes as described by general relativity must be modified.

Stephen Hawking also kept his public profile active, working to bring science to a broader audience. In 1992, a film adaptation of A Brief History of Time, directed by Errol Morris and produced by Steven Spielberg, premiered. Despite Hawking’s initial preference for a film focused on scientific content rather than biography, he was persuaded otherwise. Although the film received critical acclaim, it did not achieve widespread release. In 1993, a popular collection of essays, interviews, and talks by Hawking, titled Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays, was published. In 1997, a six-part television series titled Stephen Hawking’s Universe and a companion book were released, with the content explicitly focused on scientific concepts, as Hawking had insisted.

2000–2018

Stephen Hawking continued to engage with a broader audience through his writing. In 2001, he published The Universe in a Nutshell, a follow-up to his earlier works. In 2005, he collaborated with Leonard Mlodinow to produce A Briefer History of Time, which aimed to update and simplify his previous ideas for a wider readership. The following year, in 2006, Hawking released God Created the Integers, a collection showcasing his influential contributions to science.

In the same year, along with Thomas Hertog at CERN and Jim Hartle, Hawking developed a novel theory known as top-down cosmology. This theory proposed that the universe did not originate from a single unique initial state but rather from multiple possible states. Consequently, it suggested that predicting the universe’s current state from one specific initial condition was not appropriate. According to top-down cosmology, the present “selects” the past from a superposition of many potential histories, offering a potential resolution to the fine-tuning problem.

Hawking continued to travel extensively, including visits to Chile, Easter Island, South Africa, Spain (where he received the Fonseca Prize in 2008), Canada, and numerous trips across the United States. Due to practical considerations related to his disability, Stephen Hawking increasingly relied on private jet travel, which became his sole mode of international transportation by 2011.

By 2003, a growing consensus among physicists suggested that Stephen Hawking might have been incorrect about the loss of information in black holes. During a 2004 lecture in Dublin, he acknowledged his 1997 wager with John Preskill but presented his own, somewhat controversial solution to the information paradox. This involved the idea that black holes might possess multiple topologies. In a 2005 paper, Hawking proposed that the information paradox could be resolved by considering all possible histories of universes, with information loss in black holes being offset by universes where such loss does not occur. In January 2014, he referred to the supposed loss of information in black holes as his “biggest blunder.”

In a separate long-standing scientific debate, Hawking had vigorously argued—and bet—that the Higgs boson would never be discovered. The particle, which Peter Higgs proposed as part of the Higgs field theory in 1964, was the subject of a heated public dispute between Hawking and Higgs in 2002 and again in 2008. Higgs criticized Hawking’s arguments and lamented that Hawking’s “celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have.” The Higgs boson was eventually discovered in July 2012 at CERN with the help of the Large Hadron Collider. Stephen Hawking promptly conceded his bet and acknowledged that Higgs deserved the Nobel Prize for Physics, which Higgs received in 2013.

In 2007, Stephen Hawking, along with his daughter Lucy, published George’s Secret Key to the Universe, a children’s book aimed at making theoretical physics more accessible and featuring characters inspired by the Hawking family. This book was followed by sequels in 2009, 2011, 2014, and 2016.

In 2002, following a nationwide vote, the BBC honored Hawking by including him in their list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Throughout his career, he received several prestigious awards, including the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 2006, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, America’s highest civilian honor, in 2009, and the Russian Special Fundamental Physics Prize in 2013.

Several buildings have been named in his honor, such as the Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador, the Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge, and the Stephen Hawking Centre at the Perimeter Institute in Canada. In September 2008, Hawking unveiled the mechanical “Chronophage” (or time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, aptly reflecting his association with the concept of time.

Throughout his career, Hawking supervised 39 successful PhD students, though one student did not complete the program. As required by Cambridge University policy, Stephen Hawking retired from his position as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 2009. Despite considerations of protesting public funding cuts to basic scientific research, he continued to work as director of research at the Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics.

On 28 June 2009, Hawking conducted a playful test of his 1992 conjecture about the impossibility of time travel. He hosted a party open to all, featuring hors d’oeuvres and iced champagne, but only publicized it after the event, so only time-travelers would have known to attend; as anticipated, no one showed up.

On 20 July 2015, Hawking helped launch the Breakthrough Initiatives, a project aimed at searching for extraterrestrial life. He also created Stephen Hawking: Expedition New Earth, a documentary on space colonization, which aired as a 2017 episode of Tomorrow’s World.

In August 2015, Hawking suggested that not all information is lost when something enters a black hole, proposing that information retrieval might be possible according to his theory. In July 2017, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from Imperial College London. Hawking’s final paper, A Smooth Exit from Eternal Inflation?, was published posthumously in the Journal of High Energy Physics on 27 April 2018.

Personal Life

Marriages

Stephen Hawking met his future wife, Jane Wilde, at a party in 1962. The following year, Hawking was diagnosed with motor neuron disease. In October 1964, despite the looming challenges due to Hawking’s shortened life expectancy and physical limitations, the couple became engaged. Hawking later remarked that the engagement gave him “something to live for.” They were married on 14 July 1965 in their shared hometown of St Albans.

The couple lived in Cambridge, conveniently close to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP) where Stephen Hawking worked. During their early years of marriage, Jane resided in London during the week to complete her degree at Westfield College. They frequently traveled to the United States for conferences and physics-related visits. Jane pursued a PhD in medieval Spanish poetry through Westfield College, completing it in 1981. The couple had three children: Robert, born in May 1967, Lucy, born in November 1970, and Timothy, born in April 1979.

Stephen Hawking rarely discussed his illness and physical challenges, even with Jane. His disabilities meant that Jane assumed most of the responsibilities for home and family, allowing Hawking more time to focus on his work. When he was appointed to a year-long position at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena in 1974, Jane suggested that a graduate or post-doctoral student live with them to assist with his care. Bernard Carr was the first of many students to take on this role. The family enjoyed a generally positive and stimulating year in Pasadena.

Returning to Cambridge in 1975, Hawking took on a new role as a reader. His close friend Don Page moved in to assist as a graduate student, which allowed Jane to return to her doctoral studies and pursue her interest in singing.

In December 1977, Jane met organist Jonathan Hellyer Jones while singing in a church choir. Hellyer Jones became a close family friend, and by the mid-1980s, he and Jane developed romantic feelings for each other. Jane claimed that Stephen Hawking was accepting of their relationship, stating he would not object as long as she continued to love him. Despite this, Jane and Hellyer Jones worked to ensure that their relationship did not disrupt the family, keeping it platonic for a time.

By the 1980s, Hawking’s marriage faced significant strain. Jane felt overwhelmed by the constant presence of nurses and assistants, and the pressures of Hawking’s celebrity status were challenging. His contrasting views on religion with Jane’s strong Christian beliefs also created tension. After a tracheotomy in 1985, which necessitated full-time nursing care, Hawking grew close to one of his nurses, Elaine Mason. Some colleagues and family members were troubled by Mason’s strong personality and protectiveness. In February 1990, Hawking informed Jane that he was leaving her for Mason and subsequently moved out of the family home. After divorcing Jane in 1995, Hawking married Mason in September, declaring, “It’s wonderful – I have married the woman I love.“

In 1999, Jane Hawking published a memoir titled Music to Move the Stars, detailing her marriage to Hawking and its eventual breakdown. The book caused a media sensation, but Hawking, as was his practice regarding his personal life, refrained from making public comments except to note that he did not read biographies about himself. After his second marriage, Hawking’s family felt increasingly excluded from his life. Concerns about possible physical abuse emerged in the early 2000s, leading to police investigations that were closed after Hawking refused to file a complaint.

In 2006, Hawking and Mason divorced, and he rekindled closer relationships with Jane, his children, and his grandchildren. Reflecting on this period, a revised edition of Jane’s memoir, retitled Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen was published in 2007 and adapted into the film The Theory of Everything in 2014.

Disability

Stephen Hawking had a rare form of motor neuron disease (MND), also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig’s disease, which progressively paralyzed him over several decades. This neurodegenerative disease affects the motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord.

During his final year at Oxford, Hawking began experiencing increased clumsiness, including a fall on some stairs and difficulties while rowing. His speech became slightly slurred, which his family noticed when he returned home for Christmas. Medical investigations led to a diagnosis of MND in 1963 when Hawking was just 21 years old. At that time, doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years.

In the late 1960s, Hawking’s physical abilities declined significantly. He began using crutches and could no longer give lectures regularly. As he gradually lost the ability to write, he developed compensatory visual methods, seeing equations in geometric terms. Werner Israel, a physicist, later compared this achievement to Mozart composing an entire symphony in his head. Hawking was known for his fierce independence and reluctance to accept help, preferring to be viewed as “a scientist first, popular science writer second, and, in all the ways that matter, a normal human being with the same desires, drives, dreams, and ambitions as the next person.” His wife, Jane, noted that this quality could be seen as both determination and obstinacy.

By the end of the 1960s, Hawking had reluctantly agreed to use a wheelchair, eventually becoming known for his erratic driving style. His early wheelchairs were standard motorized models. The earliest surviving example of these chairs, made by BEC Mobility, was sold by Christie’s in November 2018 for £296,750. As Hawking’s condition progressed, he used various chairs, including a DragonMobility Dragon powerchair in 2007, a Permobil C350 in 2014, and a Permobil F3 in 2016.

By the late 1970s, Hawking’s speech had deteriorated to the point where only his family and closest friends could understand him. To communicate with others, he relied on an interpreter. After a dispute with the university over funding for an access ramp to his workplace, Hawking and Jane advocated for better disability access and support in Cambridge, including adapted student housing. Although he wanted to help others, he had ambivalent feelings about his role as a disability rights advocate, leading to some criticism for his lack of engagement.

In mid-1985, during a visit to CERN on the France-Switzerland border, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which was life-threatening given his condition. Jane was asked if life support should be terminated, but she refused. The result was a tracheotomy, which required around-the-clock nursing care and resulted in the loss of his remaining speech. The National Health Service was prepared to fund a nursing home, but Jane insisted he would remain at home, with care funded by an American foundation. Nurses, including Elaine Mason, who would later become Hawking’s second wife, were hired to provide care.

Initially, Hawking communicated by raising his eyebrows to choose letters on a spelling card. In 1986, he received a computer program called the “Equalizer” from Walter Woltosz, CEO of Words Plus, designed to assist his mother-in-law, who also had ALS. This technology allowed Hawking to select phrases, words, or letters from a bank using a switch. Elaine Mason’s husband, David, adapted a small computer for use with Hawking’s wheelchair. Despite the later availability of other voices, Hawking retained the original American-accented voice he used, identifying with it.

By 2005, Hawking began using movements of his cheek muscles to control his communication device at a rate of about one word per minute. Collaboration with Intel researchers led to the development of an adaptive word predictor by SwiftKey, which improved his communication efficiency. Despite challenges, this system made it easier for him to interact.

By 2009, Hawking could no longer drive his wheelchair independently. Attempts to use chin movements to control the chair proved difficult due to his limited neck movement. In his final years, Hawking faced increased breathing difficulties, requiring a ventilator and frequent hospitalizations.

Disability Outreach

Starting in the 1990s, Stephen Hawking embraced his role as a role model for disabled individuals, engaging in various lectures and fundraising activities to support disability causes. At the turn of the century, he, along with eleven other prominent humanitarians, signed the Charter for the Third Millennium on Disability. This charter called on governments to take measures to prevent disability and to safeguard the rights of disabled people.

In 1999, Hawking was honored with the Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize by the American Physical Society, recognizing his significant contributions to science and disability advocacy.

In August 2012, Stephen Hawking played a prominent role in the “Enlightenment” segment of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, showcasing his commitment to disability issues. The following year, a biographical documentary film titled Hawking, featuring Stephen Hawking himself, was released, further highlighting his life and work.

In September 2013, Hawking publicly supported the legalization of assisted suicide for terminally ill patients, demonstrating his advocacy for compassionate end-of-life care. In August 2014, he participated in the Ice Bucket Challenge, a campaign designed to raise awareness for ALS/MND and to fund research. Although Hawking had pneumonia in 2013 and was advised against having ice poured over him, his children stepped in to accept the challenge on his behalf.

Plans for a Trip to Space

In late 2006, Stephen Hawking expressed in a BBC interview that one of his greatest unfulfilled desires was to travel to space. Upon hearing this, Richard Branson extended an offer to Hawking for a free flight into space with Virgin Galactic, an offer which Hawking eagerly accepted. His motivation was not only personal ambition but also a desire to inspire public interest in space exploration and to demonstrate the potential of individuals with disabilities.

On April 26, 2007, Stephen Hawking experienced weightlessness aboard a specially modified Boeing 727–200 jet operated by Zero-G Corp off the coast of Florida. The flight aimed to simulate the weightless environment of space. Despite concerns that the maneuvering might cause him discomfort, the flight was extended to include eight parabolic arcs. This was deemed a successful test of Hawking’s ability to endure the g-forces associated with space travel.

Although the date for Stephen Hawking’s projected space trip was initially set for as early as 2009, commercial space flights had not begun before his death.

Stephen Hawking: A Tribute to His Life and Legacy

Stephen Hawking passed away at his home in Cambridge on March 14, 2018, at the age of 76. His family reported that he “died peacefully.” In the wake of his death, he was commemorated by figures from various fields including science, entertainment, and politics. The Gonville and Caius College flag was lowered to half-mast, and a book of condolences was made available for students and visitors to sign.

A tribute to Stephen Hawking was delivered by IPC President Andrew Parsons during the closing speech at the 2018 Paralympic Winter Games in Pyeongchang, South Korea, recognizing his impact and contributions.

Stephen Hawking’s private funeral occurred on March 31, 2018, at Great St Mary’s Church in Cambridge. Among the attendees were actors Eddie Redmayne and Felicity Jones, who starred in The Theory of Everything, Queen guitarist and astrophysicist Brian May, and model Lily Cole. Additionally, actor Benedict Cumberbatch, who portrayed Hawking in the film Hawking, astronaut Tim Peake, Astronomer Royal Martin Rees, and physicist Kip Thorne delivered readings at the service. Despite being an atheist, Hawking’s funeral was conducted as a traditional Anglican service.

Following the cremation, a service of thanksgiving was held at Westminster Abbey on June 15, 2018. Stephen Hawking’s ashes were interred in the Abbey’s nave, positioned between the graves of Sir Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin.

Stephen Hawking’s Legacy and Commemoration

Inscribed on Stephen Hawking‘s memorial stone are the words “Here lies what was mortal of Stephen Hawking 1942–2018″ alongside his most renowned equation. At least fifteen years before his death, Hawking had directed that the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy equation be used as his epitaph. In June 2018, it was announced that Hawking‘s words, set to music by Greek composer Vangelis, would be transmitted into space from a European Space Agency satellite dish in Spain, aimed at reaching the nearest black hole, 1A 0620-00.

Hawking‘s final broadcast interview, addressing the detection of gravitational waves from the collision of two neutron stars, took place in October 2017. His last public statements appeared posthumously in April 2018, in the form of a Smithsonian TV Channel documentary titled Leaving Earth: Or How to Colonize a Planet. One of Hawking‘s final research studies, titled A Smooth Exit from Eternal Inflation?, which explored the origin of the universe, was published in the Journal of High Energy Physics in May 2018. Later, in October 2018, another of Hawking‘s final research studies, titled Black Hole Entropy and Soft Hair, was released, dealing with the “mystery of what happens to the information held by objects once they disappear into a black hole”. Also in October 2018, Hawking‘s last book, Brief Answers to the Big Questions, was published, presenting his final thoughts on the most crucial questions facing humanity.

On 8 November 2018, an auction of 22 personal possessions of Stephen Hawking, including his doctoral thesis (“Properties of Expanding Universes”, PhD thesis, Cambridge University, 1965) and wheelchair, was held, fetching approximately £1.8 million. Proceeds from the sale of the wheelchair went to two charities, the Motor Neurone Disease Association, and the Stephen Hawking Foundation; proceeds from Hawking‘s other items went to his estate.

In March 2019, it was announced that the Royal Mint would issue a commemorative 50p coin, available only as a commemorative edition, in honor of Hawking. The same month, Hawking‘s nurse, Patricia Dowdy, was struck off the nursing register for “failures over his care and financial misconduct.”

In May 2021, it was announced that an Acceptance-in-Lieu agreement between HMRC, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Cambridge University Library, the Science Museum Group, and the Hawking Estate would ensure that around 10,000 pages of Hawking‘s scientific and other papers remain in Cambridge, while objects including his wheelchairs, speech synthesizers, and personal memorabilia from his former Cambridge office would be housed at the Science Museum. In February 2022, the “Stephen Hawking at Work” display opened at the Science Museum, London, marking the beginning of a two-year nationwide tour.

Stephen Hawking’s Views on Philosophy

At Google’s Zeitgeist Conference in 2011, Stephen Hawking declared that “philosophy is dead”. Hawking argued that philosophers “have not kept up with modern developments in science”, and asserted that they “have not taken science sufficiently seriously,” rendering philosophy no longer relevant to knowledge claims. He claimed that their discipline was outdated and that scientists “have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge”. According to Hawking, philosophical problems could be addressed through science, particularly through new scientific theories which “lead us to a new and very different picture of the universe and our place in it”. Hawking‘s stance on philosophy received both praise and criticism.

Future of Humanity

In 2006, Stephen Hawking posed a thought-provoking question on the Internet: “In a world that is in chaos politically, socially, and environmentally, how can the human race sustain another 100 years?” He later clarified his intent by stating, “I don’t know the answer. That is why I asked the question, to get people to think about it, and to be aware of the dangers we now face.” Hawking‘s inquiry was aimed at raising awareness about the critical issues confronting humanity and encouraging people to consider the steps necessary for a sustainable future.

Stephen Hawking expressed significant concern about the potential threats facing life on Earth, including the risks posed by a sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus, global warming, or other unforeseen dangers. Hawking stated: “I regard it as almost inevitable that either a nuclear confrontation or environmental catastrophe will cripple the Earth at some point in the next 1,000 years” and identified an “asteroid collision” as the most substantial threat to the planet. He believed that such a global disaster would not necessarily result in human extinction if the human race could colonize other planets before the catastrophe occurred. Hawking viewed spaceflight and the colonization of space as essential for ensuring the future survival of humanity.

Stephen Hawking also addressed the possibility of extraterrestrial life. He suggested that, given the vastness of the universe, aliens are likely to exist but advised that contact with them should be avoided. In 2010, Hawking warned that aliens might exploit Earth’s resources, comparing potential alien visits to the arrival of Columbus in America, which had devastating consequences for Native Americans.

Hawking raised concerns about the development of superintelligent artificial intelligence (AI), emphasizing its potential to significantly impact humanity’s future. He remarked that “the potential benefits are huge… Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. It might also be the last unless we learn how to avoid the risks.” He feared that an extremely intelligent future AI might develop a drive to survive and acquire more resources, posing a risk if its goals were not aligned with human interests. Hawking highlighted that the true danger with AI is not malice but competence, as a super-intelligent AI could be extremely effective at achieving its objectives, which could spell trouble if those objectives conflict with human values. He also argued that the immense wealth generated by machines should be redistributed to prevent worsening economic inequality.

Additionally, Hawking expressed worries about the potential risk of a “superhuman” race capable of designing their evolution. He also commented on the nature of computer viruses, suggesting they should be regarded as a new form of life. He reflected, “Maybe it says something about human nature, that the only form of life we have created so far is purely destructive. Talk about creating life in our image.”

Religion and Atheism: The Views of Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking was an avowed atheist. He regarded the brain as akin to a computer that ceases to function when its components fail and dismissed the concept of an afterlife as a “fairy story for people afraid of the dark.” In an interview with The Guardian, Hawking elaborated on his perspective, stating that the simplest explanation for the universe is that there is no God. He believed that no one created the universe or directed our fate, leading him to the profound realization that there is likely no heaven or afterlife. Hawking emphasized that we have only this one life to appreciate the grand design of the universe, for which he was deeply grateful.

Stephen Hawking’s association with atheism and freethinking was evident from his time at university when he was a member of Oxford University’s humanist group. He was scheduled to be the keynote speaker at a 2017 Humanists UK conference, reflecting his long-standing commitment to these principles. In an interview with El Mundo, Hawking stated:

“Before we understand science, it is natural to believe that God created the universe. But now science offers a more convincing explanation. What I meant by ‘we would know the mind of God’ is, that we would know everything that God would know, if there were a God, which there isn’t. I’m an atheist.”

Additionally, Hawking expressed that if one wished to call the laws of science ‘God,’ it would not be a personal God with whom one could interact or question.

Politics: The Political Stance of Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking was a dedicated supporter of the Labour Party throughout his life. He recorded a tribute for Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore in 2000 and labeled the 2003 invasion of Iraq as a “war crime.” Hawking was a vocal advocate for nuclear disarmament, stem cell research, universal health care, and action to combat climate change.

In August 2014, Hawking was among 200 public figures who signed a letter to The Guardian, urging Scotland to remain part of the United Kingdom in the upcoming referendum. He expressed concerns that the UK’s withdrawal from the European Union (Brexit) would negatively impact the country’s scientific contributions, as modern research relies heavily on international collaboration. Hawking also noted that the free movement of people in Europe promoted the exchange of ideas, which he believed was crucial. In a conversation with Theresa May, he humorously remarked, “I deal with tough mathematical questions every day, but please don’t ask me to help with Brexit.” Hawking was notably disappointed by Brexit and cautioned against envy and isolationism.

A significant area of concern for Hawking was health care. He maintained that he would not have survived into his 70s without the UK National Health Service (NHS). He was particularly apprehensive about privatization, stating, “The more profit is extracted from the system, the more private monopolies grow and the more expensive healthcare becomes. The NHS must be preserved from commercial interests and protected from those who want to privatize it.” Hawking criticized the Conservatives for cutting NHS funding, weakening the service through privatization, and undermining staff morale with pay freezes and reduced social care. He accused Jeremy Hunt of distorting evidence, which he believed undermined scientific integrity. Hawking also highlighted the inadequacies in NHS funding and staffing, stating, “There is overwhelming evidence that NHS funding and the numbers of doctors and nurses are inadequate, and it is getting worse.” In June 2017, he endorsed the Labour Party for the general election, citing concerns over Conservative cuts to the NHS, although he was skeptical about the party’s potential success under Jeremy Corbyn.

Stephen Hawking was alarmed by Donald Trump’s policies on global warming, warning that they could make climate change irreversible. He stated, “Climate change is one of the great dangers we face, and it’s one we can prevent if we act now. By denying the evidence for climate change, and pulling out of the Paris Agreement, Donald Trump will cause avoidable environmental damage to our beautiful planet, endangering the natural world, for us and our children.” Hawking further cautioned that such policies could lead to Earth becoming like Venus, with extreme temperatures and acid rain.

In addition, Hawking supported the concept of a universal basic income and was critical of the Israeli government’s stance on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, suggesting that their policies were likely to lead to disaster.

Appearances in Popular Media

Stephen Hawking made notable appearances in popular media throughout his career. In 1988, Hawking, along with Arthur C. Clarke and Carl Sagan, participated in an interview for the program God, the Universe and Everything Else. During this interview, Stephen Hawking engaged in a discussion on several profound topics, including the Big Bang theory, the concept of God, and the potential for extraterrestrial life.

Stephen Hawking made numerous notable appearances in popular media over the years. During the release party for the home video version of A Brief History of Time, Leonard Nimoy, known for his role as Spock on Star Trek, learned of Hawking’s interest in appearing on the show. Nimoy facilitated the opportunity, leading Stephen Hawking to appear as a holographic simulation of himself in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1993. In the same year, Hawking also had his synthesizer voice recorded for the Pink Floyd song “Keep Talking”, and made an appearance on The Simpsons in 1999.

Hawking was featured in several documentaries, including The Real Stephen Hawking (2001), Stephen Hawking: Profile (2002), and Hawking (2013), as well as the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe (2008). He also guest-starred in Futurama and had a recurring role in The Big Bang Theory.

Stephen Hawking allowed the use of his copyrighted voice in the biographical 2014 film The Theory of Everything, where he was portrayed by Eddie Redmayne, who won an Academy Award for his role. Hawking appeared in a pre-recorded video during the Monty Python Live (Mostly) show in 2014, where he performed an extended version of the “Galaxy Song” and humorously interacted with Brian Cox.

Utilizing his fame, Hawking endorsed various products, including a wheelchair, National Savings, British Telecom, Specsavers, Egg Banking, and Go Compare. In 2015, he even applied to trademark his name.

In March 2018, shortly before his death, Stephen Hawking voiced The Book Mark II on The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy radio series and was a guest on Neil deGrasse Tyson’s StarTalk.

The 2021 animated sitcom The Freak Brothers introduced a recurring character, Mayor Pimco, who is modeled after Stephen Hawking.

On 8 January 2022, Google honored Hawking with a Google Doodle in celebration of what would have been his 80th birthday.

Awards and Honors

Stephen Hawking garnered numerous awards and honors throughout his distinguished career. One of his early recognitions came in 1974 when he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).[6] His nomination at that time highlighted his significant contributions to the field of general relativity. The nomination read:

Stephen Hawking has made major contributions to the field of general relativity. These contributions stem from a profound understanding of physics and astronomy, and especially from his mastery of entirely new mathematical techniques. Building on the pioneering work of Roger Penrose, Hawking established, both independently and in collaboration with Penrose, a series of increasingly robust theorems demonstrating that all realistic cosmological models must include singularities. Using similar methodologies, Hawking also proved fundamental theorems concerning black holes: that stationary solutions of Einstein’s equations with smooth event horizons must necessarily be axisymmetric; and that in the evolution and interaction of black holes, the total surface area of the event horizons must increase. Additionally, in collaboration with G. Ellis, Hawking authored an impressive and original treatise titled Space-Time in the Large.

The citation for Stephen Hawking continues: “Other significant work by Hawking pertains to the interpretation of cosmological observations and the design of gravitational wave detectors.”

Stephen Hawking was also recognized as a member of several esteemed institutions. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1984, the American Philosophical Society in 1984, and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1992.

In 2015, Hawking was honored with the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Basic Sciences, which he shared with Viatcheslav Mukhanov. This accolade acknowledged their groundbreaking work demonstrating that galaxies formed from quantum fluctuations in the early Universe. At the 2016 Pride of Britain Awards, Hawking received the Lifetime Achievement Award “for his contribution to science and British culture”. During the award ceremony, after receiving the honor from Prime Minister Theresa May, Hawking humorously asked that she refrain from seeking his assistance with Brexit.

The Hawking Fellowship

In 2017, the Cambridge Union Society, in collaboration with Stephen Hawking, established the Professor Stephen Hawking Fellowship. This fellowship is awarded annually to an individual who has made a significant impact in the STEM fields and social discourse, with a special emphasis on contributions that influence younger generations. Each recipient of the fellowship presents a lecture on a topic of their choice, referred to as the ‘Hawking Lecture’.

Stephen Hawking himself was honored as the inaugural fellow and delivered the first Hawking Lecture. This event marked his final public appearance before his passing.

Medal for Science Communication

Stephen Hawking was an influential member of the advisory board for the Starmus Festival, playing a significant role in promoting and recognizing science communication. To honor contributions that enhance awareness of science, the Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication was established in 2016. This annual award celebrates members of the arts community who have made outstanding contributions to this field. The medal features a portrait of Hawking by Alexei Leonov on one side, and on the other side, it depicts Leonov performing the first spacewalk alongside an image of the “Red Special,” the guitar of Queen musician and astrophysicist Brian May (reflecting music’s significant role in the Starmus Festival).

The Starmus III Festival in 2016 paid tribute to Stephen Hawking, and the book of lectures from this festival, titled “Beyond the Horizon,” was dedicated to him. The inaugural recipients of the Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication were selected by Hawking himself and were awarded at this festival. The first laureates included composer Hans Zimmer, physicist Jim Al-Khalili, and the science documentary Particle Fever.

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