The Russian Civil War was a complex and devastating conflict that followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Various factions, including the Bolsheviks (later known as the Communists), the White Army (a loose coalition of anti-Bolshevik forces), and various other smaller groups, fought for control of Russia.
The war was marked by intense fighting, widespread violence, and economic hardship. Ultimately, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, emerged victorious, consolidating their power and establishing the Soviet Union. The Russian Civil War had a profound impact on the 20th century, shaping the geopolitical landscape and leading to the rise of the Soviet Union as a global superpower.
Soldiers of the Siberian Army
Bolshevik suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion
American troops in Vladivostok during the Allied intervention
Victims of the Red Terror in Crimea
Hanging of Bolsheviks in Yekaterinoslav by the Austro-Hungarian Army
A review of Red Army troops in Moscow
The Russian Revolution of 1917 marked a significant turning point in world history. The overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the subsequent Bolshevik Revolution led to a prolonged civil war.
The Red Army, led by the Bolshevik party, fought to establish a socialist state under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. Opposing them were the White Army, a diverse coalition of anti-Bolshevik forces, and other groups like the Ukrainian anarchists and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries.
The conflict was further complicated by the intervention of thirteen foreign powers, including Allied and Central Powers nations. The Allies aimed to re-establish the Eastern Front against Germany, while the Central Powers sought to maintain the territorial gains they had acquired in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
The Russian Civil War was a brutal and destructive conflict that reshaped the political and social landscape of Russia and had far-reaching implications for the global balance of power.
The Bolsheviks, after seizing power, faced numerous challenges, including a devastating civil war and foreign intervention. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, a humiliating peace treaty with Germany, forced Russia to cede significant territory.
The Czechoslovak Legion’s revolt in Siberia and the subsequent Allied intervention further weakened the Bolshevik position. However, through strategic military campaigns and political maneuvering, the Red Army gradually regained control of lost territory. Key victories, such as the Eastern Front counteroffensive, Southern Front counteroffensive, and the defeat of the Northwestern Army, helped to solidify Bolshevik power.
Despite facing numerous obstacles, the Bolsheviks ultimately emerged victorious, establishing the Soviet Union and ushering in a new era of Soviet history.
By 1920, the White Army had been defeated on all fronts, and the Bolsheviks had consolidated their control over much of the former Russian Empire. However, the war had significantly weakened Russia and led to the emergence of several independent nations, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.
The Bolsheviks attempted to reconquer these newly independent states but were ultimately unsuccessful. Poland, in particular, proved to be a formidable adversary, forcing the Soviets to sign the Peace of Riga in 1921, which recognized Poland’s independence and established a new border between the two countries.
The Soviet Union continued to face challenges in Central Asia, where anti-Bolshevik uprisings persisted until the late 1920s. Despite these difficulties, the Bolsheviks managed to establish Soviet rule over most of the former Russian Empire, laying the foundation for the Soviet Union as a major global power.
The Russian Civil War was a devastating conflict that resulted in the deaths of millions of people. As the Red Army gained momentum, the White Army forces, led by figures like Admiral Kolchak, were forced to retreat. The Bolsheviks advanced eastward, facing resistance in regions like Chita, Yakutsk, and Mongolia.
Key turning points in the war included the evacuations from Novorossiysk and Crimea, which significantly weakened the White Army. The final defeat of the White Army and the capture of Vladivostok in 1922 marked the end of the major phase of the conflict.
However, anti-Bolshevik resistance continued in various forms, particularly in Central Asia with the Basmachi movement and in the Far East. These conflicts lasted until the early 1930s, further contributing to the overall human cost of the Russian Civil War.
Context
World War I
That’s correct. The Russian Empire was a major player in World War I, fighting alongside the Allied Powers against the Central Powers. However, the war, coupled with internal political and economic turmoil, led to the collapse of the Tsarist regime and the rise of the Bolshevik Revolution.
The Russian Revolution and subsequent civil war significantly weakened Russia and forced it to withdraw from the war. This had a profound impact on the global balance of power and ultimately contributed to the Central Powers’ defeat.
The Revolution of February
Emperor Nicholas II of Russia abdicated as a result of the 1917 February Revolution. A scenario of dual authority resulted from the establishment of the social-democratic Russian Provisional Government and the organization of soviets, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, across the nation. In September of the same year, the Russian Republic was officially established.
The October Revolution
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 was a pivotal event that marked the beginning of the Soviet era. The Provisional Government, which took power after the February Revolution, failed to address the pressing issues of the time, including the ongoing war with the Central Powers. This led to a rise in support for the Bolshevik party, which promised “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in October 1917, overthrowing the Provisional Government. While they initially gained support from various socialist groups, including the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, disagreements over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly led to a split.
The Bolsheviks, however, managed to consolidate their power and establish the Soviet Union, despite facing significant challenges, including a devastating civil war and foreign intervention.
The Red Army’s formation
The Bolsheviks employed the volunteer-based Red Guards as their primary military force, supplemented by an armed Cheka (the Bolshevik state secret police) force, when the Russian Army, the successor organization of the former Imperial Russian Army, began to crumble in the middle of 1917.
The future Russian People’s Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, Leon Trotsky, led the Red Guards’ restructuring into a Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army in January 1918 in order to establish a more effective fighting force following major Bolshevik defeats in battle. To ensure allegiance and boost morale, the Bolsheviks assigned political commissars to every Red Army unit.
The challenges faced by the Bolsheviks in building and maintaining the Red Army. The initial reliance on volunteer forces proved insufficient, leading to the implementation of mandatory conscription. This drastic measure, while necessary to bolster the Red Army’s numbers, also presented significant challenges.
The conscription of rural peasants, who often harbored resentment towards the Bolshevik regime, was met with resistance. The Bolsheviks resorted to harsh tactics, including hostage-taking and executions, to enforce conscription. This approach, while effective in increasing the Red Army’s numbers, also alienated many peasants and contributed to the overall brutality of the civil war.
The Red Army’s conscripts, often lacking ideological conviction, were primarily motivated by fear and coercion. This lack of ideological commitment, combined with the harsh conditions of the war, led to low morale and high desertion rates. The Red Army’s success, therefore, depended heavily on the leadership and discipline imposed by the Bolshevik party and its political commissars.
The Red Army also relied on former officers from the Tsarist era. These officers, known as “military specialists,” were sometimes coerced into service by holding their families hostage. At the beginning of the Civil War, a significant portion of the Red Army’s officer corps consisted of these former Tsarist officers. By the end of the conflict, a majority of the Red Army’s divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.
The movement against Bolsheviks
The White movement, also known as the Whites, was a group of anti-communist forces that fought against the Bolsheviks, or Reds, in the Russian Civil War. This loose confederation continued its resistance, albeit on a smaller scale, in Siberia and beyond, even into World War II. The White Army was the military wing of this movement and was also referred to as the White Guard or White Guardsmen.
The White Army adopted the structure of the Russian Army that existed under the Provisional Government. However, each formation within the White Army had its own unique characteristics. The military tactics and strategies of the White Army were rooted in the experiences of World War I, though the Civil War presented a unique set of challenges that required adaptation.
During the Russian Civil War, the White movement was a diverse coalition of political groups united by their opposition to the Bolsheviks. This broad coalition included a wide range of ideologies, from liberal republicans and social democrats on the left to monarchists and ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds on the right.
Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions
The Provisional Government repeatedly postponed the Bolsheviks’ demand for the Russian Constituent Assembly. The organization appointed by the previous Provisional Government conducted the elections following the October Revolution. Although it made use of party lists prior to the Left-Right SR split, it was founded on universal suffrage.
Following the election victory of the anti-Bolshevik Right SRs with the majority of seats, Lenin’s Theses on the Constituent Assembly made the case in Pravda that class struggles, disputes with Ukraine, and the Kadet-Kaledin insurrection made formal democracy impossible. He maintained that the Soviet government’s sovereignty must be unquestionably accepted by the Constituent Assembly or else it would be dealt with “by revolutionary means”.
On December 30, 1917, SR Nikolai Avksentiev and his supporters were arrested for plotting against the Bolshevik government. This marked the first instance of the Bolsheviks using such repressive tactics against a fellow socialist party. The official government newspaper, Izvestia, claimed that the arrest was not due to Avksentiev’s role in the Constituent Assembly.
On January 4, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee declared the slogan “all power to the constituent assembly” to be counterrevolutionary and equated it with the slogan “down with the soviets.”
The Constituent Assembly convened on January 18, 1918. The Right SR leader Chernov was elected president, defeating the Bolshevik-backed candidate, Left SR Maria Spiridonova. However, the Bolsheviks dissolved the Constituent Assembly shortly after and established a one-party state, outlawing all opposition parties. A demonstration in support of the Assembly was violently suppressed, but widespread protests did not follow.
The first major crackdown by the Cheka, targeting libertarian socialists, began in Petrograd in April 1918. A month later, in May, a violent clash erupted between anarchists and Bolshevik police in Moscow.
Uprising at the Constituent Assembly
The Union of Regeneration, a clandestine organization formed in Moscow in April 1918, aimed to resist the Bolshevik regime. It was composed of various groups, including Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists. The Union sought to support anti-Bolshevik forces and establish a Russian state based on civil liberties, patriotism, and national consciousness. Their ultimate goal was to liberate Russia from the “Germano-Bolshevik” yoke.
In May 1918, the Socialist Revolutionary Party’s Eighth Party Council convened in Moscow and recognized the Union of Regeneration as the leading force in the fight against the Bolsheviks. They prioritized saving Russia over ideological differences and class divisions. The plan was to launch an uprising to reconvene the Constituent Assembly.
However, with the Czechoslovak Legions seizing control of Siberia, the Urals, and the Volga region in late May and early June, the center of anti-Bolshevik activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five members of the Constituent Assembly formed the All-Russian Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch) in Samara, declaring it the new supreme authority in Russia. Additionally, the Social Revolutionary Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia was established in Vladivostok on June 29, 1918.
Menshevik and SR exclusion
The Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets, held on July 4, 1918, saw a significant presence of Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, numbering 352 delegates compared to the Bolsheviks’ 745. Key disagreements between the two groups emerged over issues like the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and, most notably, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
While the Bolsheviks had already excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on June 14th, accusing them of aligning with counterrevolutionaries and plotting armed attacks, the Left SRs advocated for a government inclusive of all socialist parties. Though they supported the extrajudicial execution of political opponents to quell the counterrevolution, they opposed the government’s legal authority to impose death sentences, a stance likely rooted in their history of terrorism.
A major point of contention was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Left SRs strongly opposed the treaty and disagreed with Trotsky’s stance of non-aggression against German troops in Ukraine.
According to historian Marcel Liebman, Lenin’s wartime measures, including the banning of opposition parties, were a response to the actions of these parties. Many had taken up arms against the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, engaged in sabotage, collaborated with the deposed Tsarists, or even attempted to assassinate Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders.
Liebman also highlighted instances where democratically elected opposition parties, such as the Cadets and Mensheviks, used their positions to invite in Tsarist and foreign capitalist military forces. One such example is the British military’s execution of Bolshevik members in Baku, despite their peaceful surrender of power after an electoral loss.
In response to these threats, the Bolsheviks banned each opposition party as it turned against the Soviet government. However, these bans were not as repressive as those enforced under the later Stalinist regime. In some cases, bans were even lifted.
Suppression
In December 1917, Felix Dzerzhinsky was tasked with eliminating counter-revolutionary threats to the Soviet government. He became the head of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission, or Cheka, the Soviet secret police that would later evolve into the KGB.
The Bolsheviks increasingly viewed anarchists as a serious threat, associating them with criminal activities like robberies, expropriations, and murders. In response to this perceived threat, the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) decided to crack down on anarchist militancy by liquidating criminal elements within anarchist groups and disarming these organizations.
The Bolsheviks began physically eradicating opposition, other socialist, and revolutionary factions in early 1918. Among the earliest were anarchists:
Of all the revolutionary groups in Russia, Anarchists have faced the most brutal and systematic persecution at the hands of the Bolsheviks. This suppression began as early as 1918, when the Communist government launched a surprise attack on the Anarchist Club of Moscow, using machine guns and artillery to wipe out the entire organization. This marked the start of a sporadic and often inconsistent campaign of persecution against Anarchists.
— Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, “Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists”
Before the events that would formally spark the Red Terror, on August 11, 1918, Vladimir Lenin had dispatched telegrams to “crush” landowners in Penza who stood up, sometimes violently, to military detachments requisitioning their grain and “to introduce mass terror” in Nizhny Novgorod in response to a suspected civilian uprising there:
Friends! You must put an end to the Kulak rebellion in each of your five districts without showing sympathy. You need to set an example for these individuals.
The telegram demands:
- Public execution: Execute at least 100 wealthy individuals, particularly those perceived as exploiting the peasantry.
- Publicity: Publicly announce the names of those executed.
- Confiscation of property: Seize all grain belonging to these individuals.
- Hostage-taking: Take specific individuals hostage, as outlined in a previous telegram.
Do all of this so that people for kilometers around will see it all, comprehend it, shudder, and convince themselves that we are and will continue to murder the bloodthirsty kulaks.
Yours, Lenin.
P.S. Find tougher people.
— Lenin’s Hanging Order
Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic, in mid-August 1920 after learning that volunteers were being recruited for anti-Bolshevik detachments in Estonia and Latvia, with whom Soviet Russia had signed peace treaties:
Fantastic plan! With Dzerzhinsky, finish it. We will march 10 to 20 miles (versts) and hang landowners, priests, and kulaks while feigning to be the “greens” (we will blame them later). Each hanged man will get 100,000 rubles as a prize.
On August 17, 1918, a young Imperial Russian Army cadet named Leonid Kannegisser killed Moisey Uritsky outside the Petrograd Cheka headquarters as payback for his friend’s and other commanders’ deaths.
