Part[2]
Climate Change
Climate change has led to an increase in heatwaves, droughts, storms, and flooding in Istanbul. The city’s rapid expansion and its status as a large urban area have intensified the effects of climate change through the urban heat island effect. If current trends persist, rising sea levels are likely to impact city infrastructure, with Kadıköy metro station being particularly at risk of flooding.
In response to these challenges, xeriscaping of green spaces has been suggested as a mitigation measure. Istanbul also has a climate change action plan, though it currently lacks a net-zero target. The city’s efforts to address climate change are ongoing, aiming to reduce vulnerabilities and enhance resilience against future climate-related impacts.
Flora and Fauna
The natural vegetation of Istanbul province consists of mixed broadleaf forest and pseudo-maquis, reflecting the city’s transitional, Mediterranean-influenced humid temperate climate. Prominent temperate forest genera include chestnut, oak, elm, linden, ash, and locust. Mediterranean and submediterranean species such as laurel, terebinth, Cercis siliquastrum, broom, red firethorn, and oak species like Quercus cerris and Quercus coccifera are also significant. Introduced species acclimatized to Istanbul include Platanus orientalis, horse chestnut, cypress, and stone pine.
A study examining urban flora in Kartal recorded 576 plant taxa, with 477 being natural and 99 exotic and cultivated. The most prominent native taxa belonged to the Asteraceae family (50 species), while the most diverse exotic plant family was the Rosaceae (16 species).
The Turkish Straits and the Sea of Marmara are vital for migrating fish and marine animals between the Mediterranean, Marmara, and Black Sea. The Bosporus hosts pelagic, demersal, and semipelagic fish species, with more than 130 different taxa documented. Economically important species include bluefish, bonito, sea bass, horse mackerel, and anchovies. However, fish diversity in Istanbul’s waters has dwindled from around 60 species in the 1970s to only 20 species surviving today. Marine mammals presently found in the Bosporus include the common bottlenose dolphin, short-beaked common dolphin, and harbor porpoise, though dolphin observations have become rare since the 1950s. Mediterranean monk seals, once present, have not been observed since the 1960s and are thought to be extinct in the region. Water pollution, overfishing, and coastal habitat destruction caused by urbanization are major threats to Istanbul’s marine ecology.
Istanbul also hosts a sizable stray animal population, particularly feral cats, with estimates ranging from a hundred thousand to over a million. These cats have gained widespread media and public attention and are considered symbols of the city. Rose-ringed parakeet colonies, similar to those in other European cities, are present in urban areas and are considered invasive species.
Pollution
Air pollution in Istanbul is a significant issue, with cars, buses, and taxis contributing to frequent urban smog. Unlike many European cities, Istanbul lacks a low-emission zone, exacerbating the problem. As of 2019, the city’s mean air quality remains poor enough to affect the hearts and lungs of healthy individuals during peak traffic hours. Air pollution sensors at Sultangazi, Mecidiyeköy, Alibeyköy, and Kağıthane measured almost 200 days of pollution. Istanbul ranks among the 10 worst cities for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution. However, a trial of congestion pricing is planned for the historic peninsula to mitigate these effects.
Water pollution is another concern, with algal blooms and red tides reported in the Sea of Marmara and the Bosporus, particularly in the Golden Horn. These phenomena also occur in urban lakes like Lake Büyükçekmece and Lake Küçükçekmece. In June 2021, a marine mucilage wave, allegedly caused by water pollution, spread through the Sea of Marmara, highlighting the ongoing environmental challenges faced by Istanbul.
Cityscape
Districts and Neighborhoods
European Side
The Fatih district, named after Mehmed II (Turkish: Fatih Sultan Mehmed), corresponds to what was the whole of Constantinople until the Ottoman conquest. Today, it is the capital district and is often referred to as the historic peninsula of Istanbul. This area lies on the southern shore of the Golden Horn, across from the medieval Genoese citadel of Galata on the northern shore. The Genoese fortifications in Galata were largely demolished in the 19th century to make way for the northward expansion of the city, leaving only the Galata Tower. Galata (Karaköy) is now a quarter within the Beyoğlu district, which forms Istanbul’s commercial and entertainment center, including İstiklal Avenue and Taksim Square.
Dolmabahçe Palace, the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is in the Beşiktaş district on the European shore of the Bosporus, north of Beyoğlu. The former village of Ortaköy is within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the Ortaköy Mosque on the Bosporus, near the Bosporus Bridge. Both the European and Asian shores of the Bosporus are lined with historic yalıs, luxurious chalet mansions built by Ottoman aristocrats and elites as summer homes. Inland, north of Taksim Square, is the Istanbul Central Business District (CBD), a set of corridors lined with office buildings, residential towers, shopping centers, and university campuses, with over 2,000,000 m2 (22,000,000 sq ft) of class-A office space in total. Maslak, Levent, and Bomonti are important nodes within the CBD.
Another significant area is the Atatürk Airport corridor, an edge city-style business, residential, and shopping corridor with over 900,000 m2 (9,700,000 sq ft) of class-A office space.
Asian Side
During the Ottoman period, Üsküdar (then Scutari) and Kadıköy were tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens outside the main urban area. However, in the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced significant urban growth. The late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and more organized urban planning compared to many other residential areas in the city.
Much of the Asian side of the Bosporus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul. While it accounts for a third of the city’s population, it only provides a quarter of its employment. However, areas such as Kozyatağı–Ataşehir, Altunizade, Kavacık, and Ümraniye, collectively hosting around 1.4 million sqm of class-A office space, have emerged as important “edge cities.” These corridors and nodes of business, shopping centers, and tall residential buildings are increasingly becoming central to Istanbul’s urban landscape.
Expansion
Istanbul’s exponential growth in the 20th century led to a significant portion of the city being composed of gecekondus (literally “built overnight”), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings. Currently, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds. Large-scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have also been taking place, such as the one in Tarlabaşı. However, some of these projects, like the one in Sulukule, have faced criticism.
The Turkish government has ambitious plans for expanding the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with the new Istanbul Airport, which opened in 2019. The new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, designed to house 1.5 million people.
Parks
Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it features several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally part of the grounds of two of Istanbul’s palaces — Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace — but were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic. Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu, is on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe.
Along the European side, close to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park. Known as the Kyparades (‘Cypress Forest’) during the Byzantine period, it was first granted to Nişancı Feridun Ahmed Bey in the 16th century during the Ottoman period. Later, it was granted by Sultan Murad IV to the Safavid emir Gûne Han in the 17th century, hence the name Emirgan. The 47-hectare (120-acre) park was later owned by Khedive Isma’il Pasha of Ottoman Egypt in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants, and an annual tulip festival has been held there since 2005.
The AKP government’s decision to replace Taksim Gezi Park with a replica of the Ottoman-era Taksim Military Barracks (which was transformed into the Taksim Stadium in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 to create Gezi Park) sparked a series of nationwide protests in 2013 covering a wide range of issues.
Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city, is popular during the summer among Istanbulites. The forest originally supplied water to the city, and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.
Architecture
Istanbul is renowned for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but the city also features a diverse range of ancient, Roman, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish monuments. Its architectural heritage is a testament to its long and varied history.
The Neolithic settlement in the Yenikapı quarter on the European side, dating back to around 6500 BCE, predates the formation of the Bosporus by approximately a millennium when the Sea of Marmara was still a lake. This is the oldest known human settlement on the European side of the city. On the Asian side, the Fikirtepe Mound near Kadıköy contains relics dating to the Chalcolithic period, approximately 5500 to 3500 BCE.
Istanbul is home to numerous ancient monuments. The oldest is the Obelisk of Thutmose III (also known as the Obelisk of Theodosius). Originally erected in the Temple of Karnak in Luxor by Pharaoh Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 BCE), it was later transported to Constantinople by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 390 CE and set up in the Hippodrome. The obelisk was mounted on a decorative base with reliefs depicting Theodosius I and his courtiers.
Another ancient monument is the Serpent Column, originally part of an ancient Greek sacrificial tripod in Delphi. Erected to commemorate the Greeks who defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE, it was brought to Constantinople in 324 CE by Constantine the Great and placed in the Hippodrome.
The Column of Constantine, built in porphyry and erected in 330 CE to mark the founding of the new Roman capital, was originally adorned with a statue of Constantine the Great depicted as Apollo. The statue fell in 1106 and was replaced by a cross during the reign of Byzantine emperor Manuel Komnenos (r. 1143–1180).
Traces of the Byzantine era can be found throughout Istanbul, including ancient churches like the Hagia Irene, the Chora Church, and the Monastery of Studios. Byzantine palaces such as the Great Palace of Constantinople and its Mosaic Museum, the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus, Boukoleon Palace, and the Palace of Blachernae also dot the city. Public buildings and structures from the Byzantine period include the Hippodrome, the Augusta, various cisterns like the Basilica Cistern, and the Aqueduct of Valens.
The Hagia Sophia stands out as the pinnacle of Byzantine architecture. Its massive dome, 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter, is supported by four arches, creating a vast and awe-inspiring interior space. Originally a cathedral, it was the world’s largest for nearly a thousand years before being converted into a mosque in the 15th century. It was reopened as a museum in 1935 and re-converted into a mosque in July 2020.
Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans transformed Istanbul’s urban landscape with an extensive building program that included the construction of towering mosques and ornate palaces. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque), another landmark of the city, faces the Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet Square (the former Hippodrome of Constantinople). The Süleymaniye Mosque, built by Suleiman the Magnificent, was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects, who designed many of the city’s renowned mosques and other public buildings and monuments.
Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city. Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces.
Topkapı Palace, dating back to 1465, is the oldest seat of government surviving in Istanbul. Mehmed II built the original palace as his main residence and the seat of government. The present palace grew over the centuries through a series of additions, incorporating four courtyards and blending neoclassical, rococo, and baroque architectural forms. In 1639, Murad IV made some of the most lavish additions, including the Baghdad Kiosk, to commemorate his conquest of Baghdad the previous year.
Government meetings took place here until 1786 when the seat of government was moved to the Sublime Porte. After several hundred years of royal residence, Topkapı Palace was abandoned in 1853 in favor of the baroque Dolmabahçe Palace. Following the abolition of the monarchy in 1922, Topkapı Palace became public property. After extensive renovation, it became one of Turkey’s first national museums in 1924.
The imperial mosques of Istanbul, built during the peak of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries, include the Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and Yeni Mosque. These structures are monumental examples of classical Ottoman architecture, showcasing the grandeur and artistic prowess of the empire.
In the following centuries, particularly after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was increasingly influenced by European styles. An example of this European influence is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque, which blends traditional Ottoman elements with Baroque aesthetics. The areas around İstiklal Avenue became home to grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival, and Art Nouveau styles. These styles influenced the architecture of various structures in Beyoğlu, including churches, stores, and theaters, as well as official buildings such as the Dolmabahçe Palace.
Administration
The administration of Istanbul is structured under the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM, Turkish: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi, IBB), which has governed the city since 2004. Istanbul is concurrently the capital of the larger Istanbul Province, with its municipal boundaries coinciding with those of the province.
The current administrative framework traces its roots to the Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century. Before this period, Istanbul was governed by Islamic judges and imams under the authority of the Grand Vizier. The Tanzimat reforms introduced a secular model inspired by European cities, replacing the religious leadership with a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives from various communal groups (millet) across the city. Beyoğlu, formerly known as Pera, was the first district to establish its own director and council, consisting of long-term residents of the neighborhood.
Legislation enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to extend this administrative structure throughout the city, modeled after the twenty arrondissements of Paris. However, full implementation was delayed until 1908 when Istanbul was formally declared a province with nine constituent districts. This municipal system persisted into the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed as a belediye (municipality). In 1957, the municipality was reorganized.
During the early 1980s, small settlements surrounding major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were incorporated into their respective primary cities to form metropolitan municipalities. The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM) serves as the main governing body for the city and its surrounding areas.
At the heart of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, which comprises members drawn from district councils. This council holds authority over citywide issues such as budget management, infrastructure maintenance, and oversight of museums and cultural centers. Operating under a “powerful mayor, weak council” framework, the metropolitan mayor wields significant decision-making power, often making swift decisions that can impact transparency.
Advising the Municipal Council is the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although its decision-making authority is limited. Committee members, appointed by both the metropolitan mayor and the council, include the mayor or a delegate as its head.
District councils within Istanbul are primarily responsible for local matters such as waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. Each district council manages its own budget, subject to review by the metropolitan mayor. One-fifth of all district council members, including district mayors, also serve as representatives in the Municipal Council.
All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms. Ekrem İmamoğlu, representing the Republican People’s Party, has held the office of Mayor of Istanbul since June 27, 2019.
With both the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, the provincial government’s responsibilities are minimal. The Istanbul Special Provincial Administration operates under a governor and a democratically elected Provincial Parliament, supported by an appointed Executive Committee. Similar to its municipal counterpart, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and department heads who advise the Provincial Parliament.
The Provincial Administration’s duties primarily focus on the construction and upkeep of schools, government buildings, roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation. Davut Gül has served as the Governor of Istanbul Province since June 5, 2023.
Demographics of Istanbul
Throughout much of its history, Istanbul has stood among the largest cities globally. By 500 CE, Constantinople boasted a population estimated between 400,000 and 500,000, surpassing Rome to become the world’s largest city at the time. Constantinople competed with cities like Baghdad, Chang’an, Kaifeng, and Merv for this title until the 12th century. While it never regained its peak population status, it remained Europe’s largest city from 1500 to 1750, when London surpassed it.
As of the end of 2019, the Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality reached 15,519,267, constituting approximately 19% of Turkey’s total population. The city’s population is distributed with 64.4% residing on the European side and 35.6% on the Asian side.
Istanbul ranks as the seventh-largest city proper in the world and is the second-largest urban agglomeration in Europe, following Moscow. The city exhibits a high annual population growth rate of 1.5%, which is among the highest of the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). This growth trend mirrors broader urbanization patterns across Turkey, with İzmir and Ankara ranking as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises, respectively.
Istanbul experienced rapid population expansion during the latter half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000. This growth was fueled by both internal migration from rural areas within Turkey and international migration. The number of foreign residents with residence permits in Istanbul surged significantly, rising from 43,000 in 2007 to 856,377 in 2019.
According to 2020 data from TÜİK (Turkish Statistical Institute), over 2.1 million residents in Istanbul are registered as originating from various Anatolian provinces. Significant population groups hail from provinces such as Kastamonu, Ordu, Giresun, Erzurum, Samsun, Malatya, Trabzon, Sinop, and Rize, with Sivas registering the highest percentage, boasting more than 760 thousand residents in the city. A 2019 survey revealed that only 36% of Istanbul’s population was born within the province itself.
Ethnic and Religious Groups in Istanbul
Throughout its history, Istanbul has been renowned as a cosmopolitan city, though it has seen increased homogenization since the end of the Ottoman era. The predominant ethnic group in the city is the Turkish people, who also constitute the majority ethnic group in Turkey overall. According to survey data, approximately 78% of voting-age Turkish citizens in Istanbul identify themselves as Turkish ethnically.
Kurds represent one of the largest ethnic minorities in Istanbul, with estimates ranging from 2 to 4 million. They constitute the largest group after Turks among Turkish citizens in the city. A 2019 study by KONDA indicated that Kurds make up around 17% of Istanbul’s adult population who are Turkish citizens. While Kurds have had a presence in Istanbul since the early Ottoman period, the majority migrated from villages in eastern and southeastern Turkey.
Zazas, another ethnic group, are also present in Istanbul, comprising approximately 1% of the city’s total voting-age population.
Arabs form another significant ethnic minority in Istanbul, with an estimated population exceeding 2 million. Istanbul became a notable destination for Arabs following Turkey’s support for the Arab Spring, attracting dissidents from various Arab countries. This influx included former presidential candidates from Egypt, Kuwaiti MPs, former ministers from Jordan, Saudi Arabia (including Jamal Khashoggi), Syria, and Yemen. As of August 2019, the number of Syrian refugees from the civil war residing in Istanbul was estimated at around 1 million, marking the highest concentration in any Turkish city.
The native Arab population who are Turkish citizens constitutes less than 1% of Istanbul’s total adult population. As of August 2023, the number of Syrian civil war refugees in Istanbul surpassed 530,000, further highlighting the city’s role as a major hub for displaced Syrians within Turkey.
A 2019 survey conducted by KONDA examined the religiosity among voting-age adults in Istanbul, revealing a diverse spectrum of religious beliefs and practices. According to the survey, 57% of respondents identified as religious and were actively practicing their religion’s requirements. This was followed by 26% who identified with a religion but were nonobservant, meaning they did not actively practice its requirements. 11% stated they were fully devoted to their religion, while 6% identified as non-believers who did not adhere to any religious rules or requirements. Additionally, 24% of those surveyed identified themselves as “religious conservatives”.
Sunni Muslims constitute the overwhelming majority in Istanbul, comprising around 90% of the city’s population. Alevism forms the second largest religious group.
Historically, Istanbul has been home to a diverse array of Christian communities, predominantly Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic, alongside Catholic Levantines. The Greek population, although exempt from the 1923 population exchange with Greece, faced challenges such as changes in tax status and the 1955 anti-Greek pogrom, leading to significant emigration. Despite recent migrations for work, the Greek population in Istanbul remained modest, numbering nearly 3,000 in 2019, a stark decline from its peak of 350,000 in 1919. The Armenian community, numbering between 50,000 to 70,000, has also seen a decline from its peak of 164,000 in 1913.
A smaller but significant community in Istanbul includes Christian Assyrians, with an estimated 18,000 residing in the city as of 2019, out of a national population of 25,000.
The Catholic Levantines in Istanbul and İzmir trace their origins to traders and colonists from Italian maritime republics and France, who were granted special privileges by Ottoman sultans in the 16th century. Despite once numbering over 15,000 during Atatürk’s presidency, their community has dwindled to a few hundred today, primarily concentrated in neighborhoods like Karaköy, Beyoğlu, and Nişantaşı in Istanbul.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Istanbul emerged as a significant center for Jewish culture. Sephardic Jews settled in the city after being expelled from Spain and Portugal in 1492 and 1497, contributing to a flourishing period of cultural and economic growth. Under the Ottoman Empire, Jews were granted freedoms not found elsewhere in Europe, allowing them to thrive in various professions, including commerce and medicine. However, due to emigration to Israel primarily, the Jewish population in Istanbul decreased dramatically from 100,000 in 1950 to approximately 15,000 in 2021.
Istanbul’s rich tapestry of religious and ethnic diversity continues to shape its cultural landscape, reflecting centuries of migration, cultural exchange, and historical events.
