Part[1]
Istanbul is the largest city in Turkey, uniquely positioned on both sides of the Bosporus Strait, which marks the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is considered the country’s economic, cultural, and historical capital. With a population of over 15 million residents, Istanbul comprises 19% of Turkey’s total population, making it the most populous city in Europe and the fifteenth-largest city in the world.
The city’s origins date back to the 7th century BCE when it was founded as Byzantium by Greek settlers from Megara. In 330 CE, Roman Emperor Constantine the Great made Byzantium his imperial capital, renaming it first as New Rome and then as Constantinople, after himself. In 1930, the city’s name was officially changed to Istanbul, derived from the Greek phrase “εἰς τὴν Πόλιν” (eis tḕn Pólin), meaning “to the City,” which Greek speakers had colloquially used since the 11th century.
Istanbul served as an imperial capital for nearly 1600 years, during the Byzantine (330–1204), Latin (1204–1261), late Byzantine (1261–1453), and Ottoman (1453–1922) empires. Throughout its history, the city grew in size and influence, becoming a significant hub on the Silk Road and one of the most important cities in history. It played a crucial role in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, hosting four of the first seven ecumenical councils. Following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE, the city transformed into an Islamic stronghold and became the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1517. In 1923, after the Turkish War of Independence, Ankara replaced Istanbul as the capital of the newly formed Republic of Turkey.
Istanbul was designated the 2010 European Capital of Culture and has since surpassed London and Dubai to become the most visited city in the world, with more than 20 million foreign visitors in 2023. The historic center of Istanbul is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the city hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish companies, contributing to over thirty percent of the country’s economy.
Names
The first known name of the city is Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion), given by Megarian colonists around 657 BCE. These colonists claimed lineage back to Byzas, the city’s founder, who was the son of the god Poseidon and the nymph Ceroëssa. Modern excavations suggest that the name Byzantium might reflect sites of native Thracian settlements that predated the fully-fledged town.
The name Constantinople comes from the Latin name Constantinus, after Constantine the Great, the Roman emperor who refounded the city in 324 CE. Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the 1930s when Turkish authorities began promoting the use of “Istanbul” (Turkish: İstanbul) in foreign languages. During the Ottoman rule, the names Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه) and İstanbul were used interchangeably.
The name İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ], colloquial Turkish pronunciation: [ɯsˈtambuɫ]) is widely believed to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν (Greek pronunciation: [is tim ˈbolin]), meaning “to the city.” This term was used by local Greeks to refer to Constantinople, reflecting its status as the only major city in the area. The city’s importance in the Ottoman world was also highlighted by its nickname Der Saadet, meaning “Gate to Prosperity” in Ottoman Turkish.
An alternative view suggests that the name evolved directly from “Constantinople,” with the first and third syllables dropped. Some Ottoman sources from the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe İstanbul as the common Turkish name of the time, and between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also used officially. The first use of the term Islambol (Ottoman Turkish: اسلامبول) on coinage was in 1730 during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I. In modern Turkish, the name is written as İstanbul, with a dotted İ, since the Turkish alphabet distinguishes between a dotted and dotless I. In English, the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish, it is on the second syllable (-tan-). A person from the city is called an İstanbullu (plural İstanbullular); in English, the term “Istanbulite” is used.
History
Neolithic artifacts uncovered by archaeologists at the beginning of the 21st century indicate that Istanbul’s historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE. This early settlement, significant in the spread of the Neolithic Revolution from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels. The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, dates from the Copper Age period, with artifacts from 5500 to 3500 BCE. On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos, mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.
The city’s history proper begins around 660 BCE, when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosporus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city’s economy. The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars. Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian League, before gaining independence in 355 BCE.
Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE. Byzantium’s decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated. Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.
Byzantine Era
Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the entire Roman Empire in September 324. Two months later, he laid out plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named Nova Roma, but it was commonly called Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century. On May 11, 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of the Roman Empire. Upon the death of Theodosius I on January 17, 395, the empire was permanently divided between his two sons, and the city became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which is commonly referred to as the “Byzantine Empire” during its subsequent history.
The establishment of Constantinople was one of Constantine’s most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity. Numerous churches were built across the city, including Hagia Sophia, constructed during the reign of Justinian I, which remained the world’s largest cathedral for a thousand years. Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the Hippodrome of Constantinople; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the Hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the center of episodes of unrest, including the Nika riots. Constantinople’s strategic location also ensured its long-term resilience; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against eastern invaders and the advance of Islam.
During most of the Middle Ages and the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and, at times, the largest in the world. Constantinople is generally considered the center and the “cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization.”
Constantinople began a continuous decline after the reign of Basil II ended in 1025. The decline accelerated dramatically with the events of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, which diverted from its intended purpose and instead sacked and pillaged the city. The Crusaders established the Latin Empire in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire, and Hagia Sophia was converted into a Catholic church during this time. Although the Byzantine Empire was restored in 1261, it was significantly weakened. Constantinople’s churches, defenses, and essential services fell into disrepair, and its population dwindled from half a million during the 8th century to about a hundred thousand.
After the reconquest of 1261, efforts were made to restore some of the city’s monuments. Notably, the two Deesis mosaics in Hagia Sophia and Kariye were created during this period.
Various economic and military policies instituted by Andronikos II Palaiologos, such as reducing military forces, further weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to ongoing attacks. In the mid-14th century, the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually capturing smaller towns and cities, thereby cutting off Constantinople’s supply routes and isolating them. This siege tactic culminated in the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, after an eight-week siege in which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed. Sultan Mehmed II, known as “the Conqueror,” captured Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman rule over the city.
Ottoman Empire
After Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, he declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Immediately following the city’s fall, Mehmed II rode to Hagia Sophia and had an imam proclaim the shahada, converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city’s resistance. Mehmed II proclaimed himself as the new Kayser-i Rûm, the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of the Caesar of Rome, and reorganized the Ottoman state into an empire.
In his efforts to revitalize the city, Mehmed II recognized the necessity of repopulating Istanbul. He welcomed a diverse array of people—foreigners, criminals, and runaways—demonstrating remarkable openness and a willingness to incorporate outsiders into the Ottoman political culture. He also invited people from across Europe to settle in his capital, fostering a cosmopolitan society that endured throughout much of the Ottoman period.
Revitalizing Istanbul required extensive restoration projects, ranging from roads to aqueducts. Like many monarchs of his time, Mehmed II undertook a significant urban redevelopment of the city center. He constructed a grand new palace that rivaled the old one, established a new covered market (now known as the Grand Bazaar), erected porticoes, pavilions, and walkways, and built more than a dozen new mosques. Mehmed II transformed Istanbul’s old town into an imperial capital that reflected Ottoman grandeur.
Socially, Istanbul was not segregated by modern zoning standards. Wealthy and poor inhabitants lived side by side, with opulent houses sharing streets and districts with humble hovels. Despite the Sultan and the wealthy living in seclusion from the masses, periodic epidemics such as the plague affected all classes. Those wealthy enough to own secluded country properties had a better chance of escaping these sicknesses that plagued Istanbul in the 16th century.
In 1517, the Ottoman dynasty assumed the prestigious title of caliphate, with Constantinople serving as the capital of this final caliphate for four centuries. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent from 1520 to 1566, the city witnessed a period of extraordinary artistic and architectural achievement. Chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings, contributing significantly to the city’s skyline. Meanwhile, Ottoman arts such as ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature painting flourished, reflecting the empire’s cultural zenith.
By the end of the 18th century, Constantinople’s population had grown to 570,000, underscoring its status as a bustling and cosmopolitan metropolis within the Ottoman Empire.
The early 19th century saw a period of internal strife that culminated in the rise of Sultan Mahmud II and ushered in the Tanzimat era. This period of reform brought significant political changes and introduced new technologies to the city. Bridges spanning the Golden Horn were constructed, enhancing connectivity within Constantinople. Moreover, in the 1880s, Constantinople was integrated into the broader European railway network, marking a pivotal moment in its transportation infrastructure.
Despite these modernization efforts, the introduction of amenities such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams occurred later in Constantinople compared to other major European cities. These developments, though progressive, were insufficient to prevent the overall decline of the Ottoman Empire, which faced increasing challenges both domestically and internationally.
Turkish Republic
On October 29, 1923, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey officially declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, marking a pivotal moment in Turkish history. Ankara was designated as the new capital city, shifting the political center from Constantinople to this central Anatolian location. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, revered as the father of modern Turkey, assumed office as the Republic’s first President, leading the nation through a period of profound transformation and modernization.
During World War II, in 1942, a controversial wealth tax primarily targeting non-Muslim minorities was implemented. This tax had significant repercussions, leading to the transfer or liquidation of numerous businesses owned by religious minorities within Turkey.
In the post-war era, particularly from the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent substantial urban development and structural changes. The city saw the creation of new public squares, boulevards, and avenues, albeit at times at the expense of historical buildings. This period marked a shift towards modernization and urban planning initiatives aimed at accommodating the city’s burgeoning population and economic growth.
By the 1970s, Istanbul experienced a dramatic demographic shift as people from Anatolia migrated to the city in search of employment opportunities. The establishment of new factories on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis spurred rapid urbanization and industrialization. This influx of newcomers created an unprecedented demand for housing, leading to the expansion of Istanbul’s metropolitan area into previously rural villages and forested areas.
The growth and transformation of Istanbul during this period reflected Turkey’s evolution into a modern nation-state, grappling with economic, social, and political changes as it navigated its path in the 20th century.
Geography and Environment
Istanbul, located in north-western Turkey, occupies a strategic position straddling the Bosporus Strait. This narrow waterway serves as the sole maritime link between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean via the Sea of Marmara. Historically, Istanbul’s location has been pivotal for trade and defense, offering natural advantages against enemy incursions and serving as a crucial maritime gateway.
The city is uniquely situated at the confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus Strait, and the Golden Horn, which together form a natural harbor and strategic defensive position. Istanbul’s shoreline includes several picturesque islands such as Büyükada, Heybeliada, Burgazada, Kınalıada, and five smaller islands, adding to the city’s scenic beauty and maritime significance.
Over time, Istanbul’s shoreline has expanded beyond its natural boundaries through extensive landfill projects. Areas like Caddebostan have been significantly expanded, increasing the total area of the city to 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).
Contrary to the myth of seven hills, Istanbul boasts more than 50 hills within its city limits. The tallest of these hills is Aydos, rising to an elevation of 537 meters (1,762 ft). These hills contribute to Istanbul’s varied topography and offer panoramic views of the sprawling metropolis and its surrounding waters.
Istanbul’s geographical features not only contribute to its historical and cultural significance but also play a crucial role in shaping its urban development, economic activities, and environmental sustainability.
Earthquakes
The city of Istanbul, situated in north-western Turkey, faces significant seismic risks due to its proximity to the North Anatolian Fault, which runs just south of the Sea of Marmara. This geological fault has been historically active, triggering notable earthquakes in the region, including major events in 1766 and 1894.
Experts predict that a future earthquake with a magnitude of at least 7.0 on the Richter scale is highly likely during the 21st century. However, seismic activity exceeding a magnitude of 7.5 is considered improbable based on current geological assessments.
To mitigate the urban seismic risk, Istanbul Municipality’s Directorate of Earthquake and Ground Research plays a crucial role in analyzing methods to enhance structural resilience and reduce vulnerability. Concurrently, the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency, under national government control, oversees earthquake emergency response protocols. Non-governmental organizations like İHH also contribute to disaster relief efforts.
The looming threat of major earthquakes profoundly influences infrastructure development strategies in Istanbul. Since 2012, over 500,000 vulnerable buildings have been systematically demolished and replaced to improve overall structural integrity and enhance seismic resilience. Despite efforts to strengthen infrastructure, significant challenges persist. As of 2024, many buildings constructed in the 20th century remain below modern seismic safety standards, leaving over half a million residential units susceptible to collapse in the event of a strong earthquake.
Public perception reflects widespread concern regarding the city’s preparedness for seismic disasters. While infrastructure improvements have been made, the high costs associated with retrofitting older buildings have hindered progress. Ensuring the city’s resilience against earthquakes remains a pressing challenge for authorities and residents alike, underscoring the ongoing need for proactive measures and community preparedness initiatives.
Climate
Istanbul experiences a temperate climate that is often characterized as transitional between the Mediterranean climate prevalent along Turkey’s western and southern coasts, and the oceanic climate typical of the northwestern regions.
During summers, Istanbul is warm to hot with average daytime temperatures around 28 °C (82 °F). The weather tends to be moderately dry, with less than 7 days of precipitation per month. However, high dew points and relative humidity can make mid-summer periods moderately uncomfortable despite the acceptable temperature range.
Winters in Istanbul are cool, quite rainy, and relatively snowy considering the average temperatures remain above freezing. Precipitation is unevenly distributed throughout the year, with winter months receiving at least twice as much precipitation as summer months. Winter precipitation is typically light but persistent, often manifesting as rain-snow mixes or graupel. In contrast, summer precipitation tends to be abrupt and sporadic.
Cloudiness also varies seasonally in Istanbul. Winters are notably cloudy, with only about 20 percent of days being sunny or partly cloudy. Summers, on the other hand, enjoy significantly more sunshine, with 60-70 percent of possible sunshine hours.
Overall, Istanbul’s climate exhibits significant variability throughout the year, influenced by its unique geographical position and proximity to both the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
[Stay tuned as we continue this journey together in the next blog. We appreciate your patience and can’t wait to share more with you soon!]
