Bulgaria is a Southeast European nation, formally known as the Republic of Bulgaria. It is located on the eastern side of the Balkans, just west of the Black Sea and south of the Danube River. Romania borders Bulgaria to the north, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. At 110,994 square kilometers (42,855 square miles), it is the sixth biggest nation in Europe. The capital and largest city of the country is Sofia; other important cities include Burgas, Plovdiv, and Varna.
Thousands of years ago, the lands of modern-day Bulgaria were home to the Karanovo people. But life wasn’t always peaceful. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, these lands were a battleground for powerful civilizations like the Thracians, Persians, Celts, and Macedonians. Eventually, the Roman Empire brought some stability to the region in 45 AD.
However, the Roman Empire didn’t last forever. After it fell apart, tribes from all over started invading the region. Around the 6th century, Slavic people settled in these lands. Then, in the late 7th century, a group of Bulgars, led by a strong leader named Asparuh, arrived from the east and conquered the Balkans. They established the First Bulgarian Empire, a powerful kingdom that dominated much of the region. This empire was so influential that it even created the Cyrillic alphabet, which is still used by many Slavic languages today.
The First Bulgarian Empire lasted for several centuries, but it eventually fell to the Byzantine Empire in the early 11th century. But the Bulgarian spirit wasn’t broken. In 1185, the Bulgarians revolted and established the Second Bulgarian Empire. Under the leadership of Ivan Asen II, the empire reached its peak.
Unfortunately, after years of wars and internal struggles, the Second Bulgarian Empire weakened and eventually fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1396. The Ottomans ruled the region for nearly five centuries, leaving a lasting impact on Bulgarian culture and history.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 marked a turning point in Bulgarian history. It led to the creation of a new Bulgarian state, independent from the Ottoman Empire. However, many Bulgarians were left outside the newly formed nation’s borders, sparking a desire to unite all Bulgarian lands. This feeling, known as irredentism, led to conflicts with neighboring countries and alliances with Germany in both World Wars.
After World War II, Bulgaria fell under Soviet influence and became a socialist state. The Communist Party ruled the country for decades. But in 1989, along with the fall of the Soviet Union, Bulgaria embraced democracy and multi-party elections, marking a new chapter in its history.
Since 1991, Bulgaria has been a democratic country with a centralized government. It’s divided into 28 provinces. Bulgaria’s economy is strong and diverse, relying heavily on services, manufacturing, mining, and agriculture. Its location on the Black Sea and its role as a transit point for natural gas and oil pipelines have significantly influenced its economy and foreign relations. As a member of the European Union and NATO, Bulgaria plays an active role in international affairs.
The origin of
The name “Bulgaria” comes from the Bulgars, a Turkic tribe that established the First Bulgarian Empire. The origin of their name is somewhat mysterious, but it’s believed to be derived from a Proto-Turkic word meaning “to mix” or “to stir up.” This suggests that the Bulgars were seen as a rebellious or disruptive people. Interestingly, other tribes in Inner Asia with similar names were often described in a similar way, suggesting a shared reputation for being both diverse and troublemaking.
The past
Prehistory and Antiquity
The history of human presence in Bulgaria stretches back over 150,000 years, with evidence of Neanderthal activity dating to the Middle Paleolithic period. Even earlier signs of Homo sapiens have been found, making it one of the earliest known sites of modern human habitation in Europe.
Around 6,500 BC, the Neolithic Karanovo culture emerged, marking the beginning of agricultural societies in the region. The Copper Age Varna culture, dating back to the fifth millennium BC, is renowned for its remarkable achievement: the invention of gold metallurgy. The Varna Necropolis treasure, the oldest gold jewelry in the world, provides invaluable insights into the social hierarchy and stratification of early European societies.
The Thracians, one of the ancestors of modern Bulgarians, emerged on the Balkan Peninsula around the 12th century BC. Known for their advanced metalworking skills, the Thracians also influenced Greek culture, contributing to the Orphean and Dionysian cults. Despite their cultural sophistication, they remained a tribal people without a unified state.
The Persian Empire conquered parts of modern-day Bulgaria in the 6th century BC. This Persian invasion actually spurred a sense of unity among the Thracian tribes, leading to the formation of the Odrysian kingdom under King Teres in the 470s BC. However, the kingdom eventually fell under Macedonian and Celtic influence before finally becoming a Roman province in 45 AD.
By the end of the 1st century AD, Roman rule was firmly established across the Balkan Peninsula. Christianity began to spread in the region around the 4th century. A significant cultural milestone occurred when Gothic bishop Ulfilas created the Gothic Bible, the first book in a Germanic language, in what is now northern Bulgaria around 381 AD.
After the fall of Rome in 476 AD, the Byzantine Empire took control of the region. However, due to ongoing conflicts with Persia, the Byzantines were unable to effectively defend their Balkan territories from barbarian invasions. This allowed the Slavs to enter the peninsula, primarily through Moesia, and gradually settle the interior. The Slavs assimilated the local Thracian population, who had been influenced by Hellenistic, Roman, and Gothic cultures.
The first Bulgarian Empire
Following the Slavic incursions, Moesia faced another invasion, this time by the Bulgars under Khan Asparukh. These Bulgars were remnants of Old Great Bulgaria, a confederation north of the Black Sea. In 680, Asparukh attacked Byzantine territories in Moesia and conquered the Slavic tribes there. A peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire was signed in 681, officially establishing the First Bulgarian Empire. The Bulgars, though a minority, formed a powerful ruling class over the Slavic majority.
During the 8th and 9th centuries, Bulgarian rulers steadily strengthened the empire. Krum, a notable ruler, introduced a written legal code and successfully repelled a major Byzantine invasion, killing Emperor Nicephorus I at the Battle of Pliska.
Boris I, another significant ruler, made a crucial decision to adopt Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 864. This conversion led to the recognition of the Bulgarian Church by the Byzantine Empire and the adoption of the Cyrillic alphabet, developed in the capital city of Preslav. The shared language, religion, and script played a vital role in uniting the Slavs and Bulgars into a single people.
Simeon the Great, who reigned for 34 years, ushered in a golden age for the empire, marked by significant territorial expansion.
Following Simeon the Great’s death, Bulgaria faced a series of challenges, including wars with the Magyars and Pechenegs, as well as the spread of the Bogomil heresy. The capital city of Preslav was captured by the Byzantine army in 971 after repeated invasions by the Rus’ and the Byzantines.
Under the leadership of Samuil, the empire experienced a brief period of recovery. However, this ended with the devastating defeat at the Battle of Klyuch in 1014, where the Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicted a crushing blow on the Bulgarian army. Samuil died shortly after, and by 1018, the Byzantine Empire had successfully conquered the First Bulgarian Empire.
To prevent future rebellions, Basil II implemented a clever strategy. He retained the local nobility, integrating them into the Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy. Additionally, he eased the tax burden on their lands, allowing them to pay taxes in kind rather than gold. The Bulgarian Patriarchate, while reduced to an archbishopric, retained its autocephalous status and dioceses.
The Second Bulgarian Empire
Following Basil II’s death, Byzantine domestic policies shifted, leading to a series of unsuccessful rebellions, the most significant of which was led by Peter Delyan. The empire’s authority further weakened after the catastrophic defeat at Manzikert against the Seljuk Turks and was further destabilized by the Crusades. These events hindered Byzantine efforts to Hellenize the region and created an opportunity for renewed Bulgarian independence.
In 1185, the Asen dynasty nobles, Ivan Asen I and Peter IV, organized a major uprising and successfully re-established the Bulgarian state. They founded the Second Bulgarian Empire, with Tarnovo as its capital.
The third Asen king, Kaloyan, expanded his realm to include Ohrid and Belgrade. A papal legate bestowed a royal crown upon him in recognition of the pope’s spiritual primacy. The empire peaked under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241), when trade and culture thrived and its frontiers reached the coasts of Albania, Serbia, and Epirus. Another characteristic of Ivan Asen’s reign was a departure from Rome in ecclesiastical affairs.
In 1257, the Asen dynasty was extinct. The Mongols were able to impose suzerainty over the weakening Bulgarian kingdom as a result of internal strife and constant Byzantine and Hungarian invasions. Ivaylo, a swineherd, staged a massive peasant uprising in 1277 that drove the Mongols out of Bulgaria and briefly elevated him to the position of emperor.
The feudal landowners deposed him in 1280, and by the 14th century, the Second Bulgarian Empire had broken up into little feudal dominions as a result of their factional disputes. The Ottoman Turks, a new danger coming from the Southeast, found easy prey in these dispersed rump republics, which included the Despotate of Dobrudzha and two tsardoms at Vidin and Tarnovo.
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, initially hired as mercenaries by the Byzantines, eventually turned into formidable invaders. Their conquest of Bulgarian lands began in the mid-14th century with the capture of Adrianople in 1362. Over the following decades, they seized key cities like Sofia and Shumen. In 1393, the fall of Tarnovo marked a significant turning point, followed by the defeat of the Vidin Tsardom at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Sozopol was the last Bulgarian settlement to succumb to Ottoman rule in 1453.
The Ottoman conquest had devastating consequences for Bulgaria. The nobility was eradicated, and the peasantry was subjected to serfdom under Ottoman masters. Many educated clergy fled the country, leaving a significant cultural and intellectual void. The Bulgarian people endured centuries of Ottoman rule, which had a profound impact on their history, culture, and society.
The Ottoman occupation brought immense hardship to the Bulgarian people. They were subjected to heavy taxes, including the Devshirme, a brutal practice where young Christian boys were forcibly conscripted into the Ottoman military or bureaucracy. Bulgarian culture was suppressed, and many were forced to convert to Islam.
The Ottoman authorities established the Rum Millet, a religious administrative community that governed all Orthodox Christians, regardless of their ethnicity. As a result, many Bulgarians lost their distinct national identity, identifying primarily by their faith. However, some isolated monasteries and the Catholic community in the northwest preserved their Bulgarian identity, ensuring its survival in remote rural areas.
Habsburg Austria and Russia viewed Bulgarian Christians as possible partners as Ottoman authority started to decline. In 1598, the Austrians supported an insurrection in Tarnovo; in 1686, they supported another; in 1688, they supported the Chiprovtsi insurrection; and in 1689, they supported the Karposh rebellion. By signing the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, the Russian Empire further demonstrated its commitment to protecting Christians in Ottoman territory.
The 18th-century European Enlightenment sparked a national awakening in Bulgaria. This renewed sense of national identity fueled the desire for liberation from Ottoman rule, culminating in the April Uprising of 1876. The brutal Ottoman suppression of this uprising, marked by widespread massacres of Bulgarian civilians, outraged European public opinion.
The Great Powers convened the Constantinople Conference in 1876 to address the crisis, but the Ottoman rejection of their proposals paved the way for Russian intervention. Russia, eager to expand its influence in the Balkans, declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877. With the crucial support of Bulgarian rebels, particularly during the Battle of Shipka Pass, the Russian army defeated the Ottomans and laid the groundwork for Bulgarian independence.
Bulgaria’s third state
The Treaty of San Stefano, signed in 1878, initially envisioned a large autonomous Bulgarian principality encompassing Moesia, Macedonia, and Thrace. However, the Great Powers, fearing a powerful Balkan state, forced Russia to accept the more restrictive Treaty of Berlin. This treaty significantly reduced the size of the new Bulgarian state, limiting it to Moesia and the Sofia region.
The creation of a smaller Bulgarian state with a significant number of ethnic Bulgarians outside its borders had a profound impact on the country’s foreign policy. It fostered irredentist sentiments and contributed to Bulgaria’s militaristic approach in the first half of the 20th century.
Bulgaria continued its path of militarization after gaining independence in 1908. This led to its involvement in a series of conflicts, including the Balkan Wars and World War I. Despite initial successes on the battlefield, Bulgaria ultimately suffered significant territorial losses and a high number of casualties. The influx of refugees from lost territories further burdened the already struggling economy.
A small-scale military battle known as “the War of the Stray Dog” took place between October 19 and October 29, 1925, near Petrich. Following the murder of a Greek captain and sentry by Bulgarian troops, Greece invaded Bulgaria. The League of Nations resolved the dispute, and Bulgaria emerged victorious diplomatically. The League mandated a cease-fire, the withdrawal of Greek forces from Bulgaria, and the payment of £45,000 to Bulgaria.
The political landscape of Bulgaria became increasingly unstable after World War I. Tsar Boris III established an authoritarian regime, and Bulgaria joined the Axis powers in World War II. Despite this alliance, Bulgaria refused to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union and took steps to protect its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps.
However, as the war turned against Germany, Bulgaria faced increasing pressure from the Soviet Union. The country’s refusal to expel German forces led to a Soviet declaration of war and invasion in 1944. The communist-dominated Fatherland Front seized power, aligning Bulgaria with the Allied powers.
While Bulgaria suffered relatively little war damage and avoided Soviet reparations, it was forced to relinquish most of its territorial gains from the war. The Soviet-imposed communist regime that followed marked the beginning of a new era for Bulgaria, characterized by significant political and social changes.
The communist coup of 1944 led to the establishment of a one-party state under Soviet influence. Under leaders like Georgi Dimitrov and Todor Zhivkov, Bulgaria experienced rapid industrialization and improved living standards. However, the regime was also characterized by political repression and economic stagnation.
One of the most controversial policies of the Zhivkov era was the forced assimilation of the Turkish minority in the 1980s. This policy, known as the “Revival Process,” involved the forced renaming of hundreds of thousands of Turks with Bulgarian names and the suppression of Turkish culture and language. As a result, many Turks emigrated to Turkey.
The fall of communism in 1989 marked a significant turning point for Bulgaria. The country transitioned to a parliamentary democracy and held its first free elections in 1990. While the initial years of the transition were challenging, with economic difficulties and political instability, Bulgaria gradually embarked on a path of reform and modernization.
A key milestone was Bulgaria’s accession to NATO in 2004 and the European Union in 2007. These memberships have brought significant economic and political benefits to the country, although challenges such as corruption and organized crime persist.
Today, Bulgaria is a member of the European Union and NATO, and it continues to work towards further economic development and democratic consolidation.
Geographical
Bulgaria is a medium-sized nation located in the eastern Balkans of Southeastern Europe. Its land boundaries with its five neighbors span 1,808 kilometers (1,123 miles), its coastline is 354 kilometers (220 miles) long, and its total size is 110,994 square kilometers (42,855 sq mi). The geographic coordinates of Bulgaria are 43° N 25° E.
The Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Thracian Plain, and the Rila-Rhodope massif are the nation’s most prominent topographical characteristics. The Danube forms the boundary with Romania, while the southern side of the Danubian Plain climbs uphill into the Balkan foothills. The approximately triangular Thracian Plain starts southeast of Sofia and gets wider as it approaches the Black Sea coast.
Bulgaria’s diverse topography is characterized by mountains, plains, and hills. The Balkan Mountains run across the country from west to east, dividing it into northern and southern regions. The southwest region boasts the majestic Rila and Pirin mountains, known for their alpine landscapes and the country’s highest peak, Musala. To the east, the Rhodope Mountains stretch across the border with Greece.
The Black Sea coast offers a stark contrast to the mountainous interior, with its low-lying plains and beaches. The country’s rivers, including the Iskar, Struma, and Maritsa, are generally short and have low water levels.
Climate
Because to its location at the confluence of the Mediterranean, Oceanic, and Continental air masses as well as the barrier effect of its mountains, Bulgaria has a diverse and fluctuating climate. Compared to the areas south of the Balkan mountains, northern Bulgaria has 200 millimeters (7.9 in) more precipitation and is typically 1 °C (1.8 °F) colder. Significant regional variations exist in temperature amplitudes.
−38.3 °C (−36.9 °F) is the lowest recorded temperature, while 45.2 °C (113.4 °F) is the highest. Rainfall ranges from 500 millimeters (19.7 in) in Dobrudja to over 2,500 millimeters (98.4 in) in the highlands, with an average of around 630 millimeters (24.8 in) annually. During the winter, continental air masses provide a substantial amount of snowfall.
Bulgaria’s climate is diverse due to its geographical location and varied topography. The country experiences a mix of continental and Mediterranean climates, with continental air masses dominating during the winter and Mediterranean influences becoming more pronounced in the summer.
The country is divided into five distinct climatic zones:
- Continental Zone: Characterized by cold winters with abundant snowfall and warm summers. It encompasses the Danubian Plain, the Pre-Balkan region, and the higher valleys of the Transitional region.
- Transitional Zone: A blend of continental and Mediterranean influences, with moderate temperatures and moderate rainfall. It covers the Upper Thracian Plain, parts of the Struma and Mesta valleys, and the lower Sub-Balkan valleys.
- Continental-Mediterranean Zone: Experiences hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. It includes the southernmost parts of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, Sakar, and Strandzha.
- Black Sea Zone: This coastal zone has a milder climate with relatively warm winters and warm, humid summers.
- Alpine Zone: Found in the mountainous regions above 1000 meters, including the Rila, Pirin, and Vitosha mountains. It is characterized by cold winters with heavy snowfall and cool summers.
Preservation and Biodiversity
Bulgaria boasts a rich and diverse ecosystem, making it one of the most biodiverse countries in Europe. Its varied topography and climate create ideal conditions for a wide range of plant and animal species to thrive.
Key points about Bulgaria’s biodiversity:
- Diverse Wildlife: Bulgaria is home to a significant portion of Europe’s mammal, butterfly, and vascular plant species. Larger mammals like deer, wild boar, golden jackals, and red foxes are common, and the country also supports a diverse bird population, including many rare and endangered species.
- Rich Flora: With over 3,800 vascular plant species, including numerous endemic and endangered varieties, Bulgaria’s flora is remarkable. The country’s forests, covering nearly 36% of its land area, are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance.
- Protected Areas: To conserve its natural heritage, Bulgaria has established a network of national parks, nature parks, biosphere reserves, and protected areas. These protected areas safeguard critical habitats and ensure the survival of numerous species.
Bulgaria’s commitment to biodiversity conservation is essential for preserving its unique natural heritage and ensuring the health of its ecosystems for future generations.
The National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive program aimed at protecting endangered species, conserving genetic resources, and preserving local ecosystems, was enacted by the Bulgarian government in 1998. 33.8% of Bulgaria’s land is covered by some of Europe’s largest Natura 2000 zones. Additionally, it met the Kyoto Protocol’s goal of a 30% decrease in carbon dioxide emissions between 1990 and 2009.
Despite having poor air quality, Bulgaria is ranked 30th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index. Europe has the greatest amounts of particulates, particularly in cities where coal-fired power plants and transportation are prevalent.
The Maritsa Iztok-2 station, which burns lignite, is the one of them that is harming the environment and public health the most in the EU. Large-scale soil and water contamination is caused by outdated industrial sewage systems and pesticide usage in agriculture. Since 1998, there has been a steady increase in the quality of the water. More than 75% of surface rivers are deemed to be of excellent quality by European criteria.
To be continued in the next Part.
