Exploring the 10 Mysteries of Ball Lightning: Unveiling the Science, Phenomena, and Latest Discoveries in Atmospheric Anomalies

Introduction to Ball Lightning

Ball lightning is a rare and unexplained phenomenon described as luminescent, spherical objects that vary from pea-sized to several meters in diameter. Though usually associated with thunderstorms, the observed phenomenon is reported to last considerably longer than the split-second flash of a lightning bolt, and is a phenomenon distinct from St. Elmo’s fire and will-o’-the-wisp.

Some 19th-century reports even tell about balls that ultimately explode leaving the trace of sulfur. Descriptions of ball lightning are found in a myriad of accounts over the centuries, and scientists have paid considerable attention to such phenomena. Optical spectrum from what seems to be the ball lightning phenomenon was published in January of 2014, with the video taken at a high frame rate. Still, the data on ball lightning are little scarce for science. Although laboratory experiments have produced effects that are visually similar to reports of ball lightning, how these relate to the supposed phenomenon remains unclear.

Qualities

Descriptions of ball lightning vary widely. It has been described as moving up and down, sideways or in unpredictable trajectories, hovering and moving with or against the wind; attracted to, unaffected by, or repelled from buildings, people, cars, and other objects. Some accounts describe it as moving through solid masses of wood or metal without effect, while others describe it as destructive and melting or burning those substances.

It has also been associated with power lines, and altitudes of 300 m (1,000 feet) or greater, also during thunderstorms and in calm weather. Described as being transparent, translucent, multicolored, evenly lit, radiating flames, filaments or sparks, and in shapes ranging from spheres to ovals, tear-drops, rods, or disks.

Ball lightning is frequently mistakenly mistaken for St. Elmo’s fire. They are two different phenomena.

The balls have been said to disappear in many various ways, including suddenly and without warning, gradually, by being absorbed into an object, ‘popping,’ and exploding loudly, as well as even exploding with such force that it causes damage, which is sometimes reported. Descriptions of the danger to humans also vary from lethal to harmless.

The characteristics of a “typical” ball lightning were determined by a 1972 assessment of the literature, which also warned against relying too much on eyewitness reports:

• They often occur almost at the same time as a cloud-to-ground lightning flash
• Typically they are round or teardrop-shaped with diffuse edges
• Their sizes fall between 1–100 cm (0.4–40 inches), with sizes of 10–20 cm (4–8 inches) most common
• They are as bright as about a house lamp, so they can be seen during the day
• Colors observed range widely, with red, orange, and yellow being the most frequent
• The lifetime of each event is from one second to over a minute with the brightness remaining fairly constant during that time
• They tend to move at a few meters per second, most often in a horizontal direction, but may also move vertically, remain stationary, or wander erratically
• Many are described as having rotational motion
• It rarely happens that there is the perception of warmth. In a few instances, with the disappearance of the ball is the feeling of heat liberated.
• Some of these objects tend to be attracted by metal items, and it might move along some conductors, such as copper wires, the metal fence of a building or railroad track.
• Some pass within buildings while through closed doors and windows.
• Others have appeared in metal airplanes. They get in and leave out without doing damage.
• Usually, the disappearance of the ball is rapid and either silent or explosive. There are reports of an odor that has characteristics of ozone, burning sulphur, or nitrogen oxides

Historical narratives

Legends about glowing balls, like the mythical Anchimayen from Mapuche culture in Chile and Argentina, may have their origins in ball lightning.

In one statistical survey done in 1960, it was reported that of 1,962 Oak Ridge National Laboratory monthly personnel and of all 15,923 Union Carbide Nuclear Company personnel in Oak Ridge, 5.6% and 3.1% respectively had observed ball lightning. A Scientific American article summed up the study to have established that ball lightning had been seen by 5% of the Earth’s population. Another analysis surveyed over 2,000 reports.

Gervase of Canterbury

The earliest known written record of ball lightning is found in the chronicle of the English monk Gervase of Canterbury, written on June 7, 1195. ‘A beautiful sign descended near London,’ he writes, as a dense, dark cloud emitted a white material that developed into a spherical shape beneath the cloud, from which a blazing ball plummeted towards the Thames.

Durham University historian Giles Gasper and physicist Emeritus Professor Brian Tanner determined that the chronicle item most likely described ball lightning and pointed out how it resembled earlier reports:

Historical and modern accounts of ball lightning bear a striking resemblance to Gervase’s description of a white material emerging from the black cloud, dropping as a spinning flaming orb, and then moving somewhat horizontally. The degree to which Gervase’s depiction from the 12th century resembles current accounts of ball lightning is amazing.

The Great Widecombe-in-the-Moor Thunderstorm

The Great Thunderstorm occurred on October 21, 1638, at a church in Widecombe-in-the-Moor, Devon, England, according to one early source. During a powerful storm, four individuals lost their lives and about 60 were injured. An 8-foot (2.4-meter) ball of fire struck and entered the church, almost destroying it, according to witnesses.

Huge stones were flung through huge wooden beams and onto the ground from the church walls. According to reports, the fireball destroyed several windows and pews, and it filled the cathedral with dense, black smoke and a sulphurous stench.

According to reports, the fireball split into two pieces, one of which vanished somewhere within the church and the other of which escaped by blasting a window open. Contemporaries referred to the ball of fire as “the devil” or the “flames of hell” because of the sulfur and fire odor. Some later said that God was angry because two individuals had been playing cards in the seats throughout the preaching, which was the cause of the entire episode.

The sloop Catherine and Mary

An excerpt from a letter sent by John Howell of the sloop Catherine and Mary was published in many British newspapers in December 1726:

As we were passing over the Gulf of Florida, on the 29th of August, a great ball of fire fell from the element, and split our mast into ten thousand pieces, if it had been possible; split our main beam, also three planks of the side, under water, and three of the deck; killed one man, another had his hand carried off, and had it not been for the violent rains, our sails would have been a blast of fire.

HMS Montague

In 1749, a particularly significant case was published “on the authority of Dr. Gregory”:

Admiral Chambers on board the Montague, 4 November 1749, was taking an observation just before noon. He saw a large ball of blue fire about three miles distant from them. They immediately lowered their topsails, but it came up so quick upon them that, before they could raise the main tack, they saw the ball rise near perpendicularly, and not above forty or fifty yards from the main chains when it went off with a noise, as great as if a hundred cannons had been all discharged at once, leaving a strong sulphurous smell behind it.

The principal top-mast was by this explosion broken to pieces, and the main mast went down to the keel. Five men were knocked down, and one of them bruised very much. The ball, as he thought, before the explosion seemed to be as big as a large mill-stone.

Georg Richmann

A 1753 report speaks of deadly ball lightning when professor Georg Richmann of Saint Petersburg, Russia, constructed a kite-flying apparatus like Benjamin Franklin’s proposal from a year before. Richmann was attending the meeting of the Academy of Sciences when he heard thunder and rushed home with his engraver to record the occurrence for posterity.

While the experiment was in operation, ball lightning appeared, travelled along the string, hit Richmann in the forehead, and killed him. The ball had scarred a red spot on Richmann’s forehead, his shoes opened, and his clothing is on fire. The engraver of Richmann knocked him down. The door frame of the room split, and the door knocked from the hinges.

HMS Warren Hastings

An English journal reported that in the course of a great storm which occurred in January 1809 three “balls of fire” appeared and “attacked” the British ship HMS Warren Hastings. The crew watched one ball descend, killing a man on deck and setting the main mast on fire. A crewman went out to retrieve the fallen body and was struck by a second ball, which knocked him back and left him with mild burns. A third man was killed from contact with the third ball. Crew members smelled a persistent, sickening sulfurous odor thereafter.

Ebenezer Cobham Brewer

Ebenezer Cobham Brewer, in his 1864 US edition of A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, writes about “globular lightning”. He defines it as slow-moving balls of fire or explosive gas that sometimes fall to earth or run along the ground during a thunderstorm. He said that the balls sometimes split into smaller balls and may explode “like a cannon”.

Wilfrid de Fonvielle

Wilfrid de Fonvielle, a French scientist, translated his book Thunder and Lightning: Around 150 Sightings of Globular Lightning into English in 1875.

Globular lightning seems to be especially fond of metals; therefore, it will strike the railings of balconies, or else water or gas pipes, etc. It has no peculiar tint of its own but will appear in any color as the case may be. At Coethen in the Duchy of Anhalt, it appeared green. M. Colon, the Vice-President of the Geological Society of Paris, saw a ball of lightning descending slowly from the sky along the bark of a poplar tree; it soon touched the ground and rebounded to disappear in the air, without exploding.

On 10th of September 1845, a ball of lightning penetrated the kitchen of a house at the village of Salagnac in the valley of Correze. This ball rolled across without doing any harm to two women and a young man who were there; but upon getting into an adjoining stable, it exploded and killed a pig which happened to be shut up there, and which, knowing nothing about the wonders of thunder and lightning, dared to smell it in the most rude and unbecoming manner.

The motion of such balls is far from being very rapid – they have even been observed occasionally to pause in their course, but they are not the less destructive for all that. A ball of lightning which entered the church of Stralsund, on exploding, projected a number of balls which exploded in their turn like shells.

Nicholas II, Tsar

As a little boy going to church with his grandpa Alexander II, Nicholas II, the last tsar of the Russian Empire, claimed to have seen a fiery ball.

Once my parents were away, and I was at the all-night vigil with my grandfather in the small church in Alexandria. During the service, there was a powerful thunderstorm, streaks of lightning flashed one after the other, and it seemed as if the peals of thunder would shake even the church and the whole world to its foundations.

Sudden darkness, a gust of wind from the open door blew out the flame of the candles which had been lit in front of the iconostasis, a long clap of thunder, louder than before; I suddenly saw a fiery ball flying from the window straight to the head of the Emperor. The ball (it was of lightning) whirled around the floor, then passed the chandelier and flew out through the door into the park.

My heart froze, I glanced at my grandfather – his face was completely calm. He crossed himself as coolly as he had done when the ball of fire flew close to us, and I felt that it was unmanly and cowardly to be frightened as I was. I felt that one need only look at what was happening and have faith in God’s mercy, as he, my grandfather, did. After the ball had passed through the whole church, and suddenly gone out through the door, I again looked at my grandfather. A faint smile was on his face, and he nodded his head at me. My panic disappeared, and from that time I had no more fear of storms.

Aleister Crowley

In 1916, Aleister Crowley, a British occultist, claimed to have seen “globular electricity” during a rainstorm on Lake Pasquaney in New Hampshire, USA. A little cabin provided him with refuge when he, in his own words,

…saw, in what I can only characterize as serene awe, that a brilliant ball of electric fire, seemingly ranging in diameter from six to twelve inches [15 to 30 cm], remained motionless around six inches [15 cm] below and to the right of my right knee. As I watched it, it burst with a piercing report that was hard to mix with the constant chaos of the lightning, thunder, and hail, or the broken wood and lashing water that were causing mayhem outside the cottage. The center of my right hand, which was the closest portion of my body to the globe, was the site of a very mild shock.

R. C. Jennison

In a 1969 paper published in Nature, Jennison, of the University of Kent’s Electronics Laboratory, detailed his own ball lightning observation:

On a late-night journey from New York to Washington, I was sat close to the front of the passenger cabin of an all-metal airplane (Eastern Airlines journey EA 539). A sudden bright and loud electrical discharge engulfed the airplane during an electrical storm (0005 h EST, March 19, 1963). A few seconds later, a bright ball with a diameter of little over 20 cm [8 inches] appeared from the pilot’s cabin and traveled down the plane’s aisle about 50 cm [20 inches] away from me. It remained at the same height and trajectory the whole time it was visible.

Other accounts

• Willy Ley reported a sighting in Paris on July 5, 1852 “for which sworn statements were filed with the French Academy of Science”. A tailor living near the Church of the Val-de-Grâce who was living in his apartment when a thunderstorm was coming in claimed to have seen coming out of the fireplace a ball the size of a human head which flew around the room and, reentering the fireplace, exploded within and destroyed the top of the chimney.
• On 30 April 1877, a ball of lightning entered the Golden Temple at Amritsar, India, through a side door. Several people witnessed the ball, and the incident has been inscribed on the front wall of Darshani Deori.
• An extremely long-lasting natural ball lightning event occurred in Golden, Colorado, on November 22, 1894, so it is even possible that it could be generated intentionally from the atmosphere. This was reported in the Golden Globe newspaper:

Last Monday night, an odd yet lovely event was observed in our city. The air seemed to be charged with electricity, and the wind was strong. To the astonishment and surprise of everyone who witnessed the spectacle, balls of fire played tag for thirty minutes in front of, above, and surrounding the School of Mines’ new Hall of Engineering. The dynamos and electrical equipment of what may be the best electrical plant of its size in the state are housed in this structure. Last Monday night, a visiting delegation from the clouds most likely visited the dynamos’ captives, and they undoubtedly had a great time and played a rousing game of romp.

• On 22 May 1901 in the Kazakh city of Ouralsk in the Russian Empire (now Oral, Kazakhstan), “a dazzlingly brilliant ball of fire” descended gradually from the sky during a thunderstorm, then entered into a house where 21 people had taken refuge, “wreaked havoc with the apartment, broke through the wall into a stove in the adjoining room, smashed the stove-pipe, and carried it off with such violence that it was dashed against the opposite wall, and went out through the broken window”. It was published the following year in the Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France.
• Cape Naturaliste Lighthouse, Western Australia, in July 1907. Lighthouse keeper Patrick Baird was inside the lighthouse when ball lightning struck; he fell unconscious. His daughter Ethel wrote about it.
• Ley described another Bischofswerda, Germany, case. On 29 April 1925, several witnesses observed a silent ball come to rest near a mailman, travel along a telephone wire to a school, push back a teacher who was using a telephone, and bore perfectly round coin-sized holes through a glass pane. 210 m (700 feet) of wire was melted, several telephone poles were damaged, an underground cable was broken, and several workmen were thrown to the ground but unhurt.
• One of the earliest references to ball lightning is in a child’s book written in the 19th century by Laura Ingalls Wilder.[38] The books are accepted as a form of historical fiction, but the author always claimed that they described real events in her life. In Wilder’s description, three distinct balls of lightning occurred during a late-winter blizzard next to a cast-iron stove in the family kitchen. They are said to appear near the stovepipe, then roll across the floor, only to disappear as the mother (Caroline Ingalls) chases them with a willow-branch broom.
• Pilots in World War II (1939–1945) described an unusual phenomenon for which ball lightning has been suggested as an explanation. The pilots saw small balls of light moving in strange trajectories, which came to be referred to as foo fighters.
• Submariners in World War II gave the most frequent and consistent accounts of small ball lightning in the confined submarine atmosphere. There are repeated accounts of inadvertent production of floating explosive balls when the battery banks were switched in or out, especially if misswitched or when the highly inductive electrical motors were misconnected or disconnected. An attempt later to duplicate those balls with a surplus submarine battery resulted in several failures and an explosion.
• On 6 August 1994, a ball lightning is thought to have passed through a closed window in Uppsala, Sweden, creating a circular hole about 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter. The hole in the window was discovered days later, and it was believed that it might have occurred during the thunderstorm; a lightning strike was observed by residents in the area, and was captured by a lightning strike tracking system at the Division for Electricity and Lightning Research at Uppsala University.
• In 2005 an incident occurred in Guernsey, where an apparent lightning-strike on an aircraft led to multiple fireball sightings on the ground.
• On 10 July 2011, during a powerful thunderstorm, a ball of light with a two-metre (6 ft 7 in) tail went through a window to the control room of local emergency services in Liberec in the Czech Republic. The ball bounced from window to ceiling, then to the floor and back, where it rolled along it for two or three meters. Then it dropped to the floor and disappeared. Staff in the control room were frightened, smelled electricity and burned cables and thought something was burning. The computers froze (not crashed) and all communications equipment was knocked out for the night until restored by technicians. Aside from damages caused by disrupting equipment, only one computer monitor was destroyed.
• On 15 December 2014, Loganair Flight 6780 in Scotland experienced ball lightning in the forward cabin just before lightning struck the aircraft nose, the plane fell several thousand feet and came within 1,100 feet of the North Sea before making an emergency landing at Aberdeen Airport.
• On June 24, 2022, in a massive thunderstorm front, a retired lady at Liebenberg, Lower Austria, saw blinding cloud-to-ground lightning to the northeast and within 1 min spotted a yellowish “burning object with licking flames” that followed a wavy trajectory along the local road about 15 m over ground and was lost from sight after 2 seconds. It occurred at the end of a local thunderstorm cell. It is recorded at the European Severe Storms Laboratory as ball lightning.

Measurements of natural ball lightning taken directly

In January 2014, scientists from Northwest Normal University in Lanzhou, China, published the results of recordings made in July 2012 of the optical spectrum of what was thought to be natural ball lightning, which occurred by chance during the study of ordinary cloud–ground lightning on the Tibetan Plateau. At a distance of 900 m (3,000 ft), a total of 1.64 seconds of digital video of the ball lightning and its spectrum were captured, from the formation of the ball lightning after the ordinary lightning struck the ground, up to the optical decay of the phenomenon.

Additional video was recorded by a high-speed (3000 frames/sec) camera, which captured only the last 0.78 seconds of the event due to its limited recording capacity. Both cameras were equipped with slitless spectrographs. The researchers detected emission lines of neutral atomic silicon, calcium, iron, nitrogen, and oxygen—in contrast with mainly ionized nitrogen emission lines in the spectrum of the parent lightning. The ball lightning traveled horizontally across the video frame at an average speed equivalent to 8.6 m/s (28 ft/s). It had a diameter of 5 m (16 ft) and covered a distance of about 15 m (49 ft) within those 1.64 seconds.

Oscillations in the light intensity and in the oxygen and nitrogen emission were observed at a frequency of 100 hertz, and these oscillations might be due to the electromagnetic field of the high-voltage power transmission line operating at 50 Hz in the neighborhood. The spectrum was used to estimate the temperature of the ball lightning to be lower than that of the parent lightning (<15,000 to 30,000 K). The observed data agree both with vaporization of soil and with ball lightning sensitivity to electric fields.

Laboratory experiments

For a long time, researchers have tried to create ball lightning in lab settings. It has not yet been established whether there is a connection between the visual results of some studies and accounts of natural ball lightning.

According to reports, Nikola Tesla demonstrated his ability to create 1.5-inch (3.8 cm) balls artificially. The balls Tesla created were only a curiosity; his main interests were in remote power transmission and greater voltages and powers.

The International Committee on Ball Lightning (ICBL) had held annual symposia on the subject. A similar organization refers to it as the generic name ‘Unconventional Plasmas.’ The most recent ICBL symposium was scheduled for July 2012 in San Marcos, Texas. It was called off due to the lack of abstracts received.

Microwaves steered by waves

Ohtsuki and Ofuruton reported ‘plasma fireballs’ produced by microwave interference within an air-filled cylindrical cavity fed by a rectangular waveguide using a 2.45 GHz, 5 kW maximum-power microwave oscillator.

Experiments on water discharge

According to reports, several scientific organizations, such as the Max Planck Institute, have discharged a high-voltage capacitor in a water tank to create a phenomenon similar to ball lightning.

Experiments with home microwave ovens

Most modern experiments involve the use of a microwave oven to create small, rising, glowing balls, which are often referred to as plasma balls. Generally, the experiments are performed by placing a lit or recently extinguished match or other small object in a microwave oven. The burnt portion of the object flares up into a large ball of fire, while ‘plasma balls’ float near the oven chamber ceiling.

Some experiments describe covering the match with an inverted glass jar, which contains both the flame and the balls in order not to damage the walls of the chambers. (A glass bottle, on the other hand, eventually explodes instead of merely leaving charred paint or melting metal, as happens to the interior of a microwave.) Experiments by Eli Jerby and Vladimir Dikhtyar in Israel showed that microwave plasma balls are composed of nanoparticles with an average radius of 25 nm (9.8×10−7 inches). The team proved the effect using copper, salts, water, and carbon.

Experiments with silicon

In 2007 experiments, silicon wafers were shocked with electricity, vaporizing the silicon and causing the fumes to oxidize. One way to describe the visual impact is as tiny, shimmering orbs that roll over a surface. According to reports, two Brazilian scientists from the Federal University of Pernambuco, Antonio Pavão and Gerson Paiva, have regularly used this technique to create tiny, durable balls. These studies were based on the idea that oxidized silicon vapors are what cause ball lightning (see evaporated silicon hypothesis, below).

Scientific theories that have been proposed

Currently, there is no widely accepted explanation for ball lightning. Since this phenomenon was introduced into the scientific world by English physician and electrical researcher William Snow Harris in 1843, and French Academy scientist François Arago in 1855, several hypotheses have been advanced

The theory of vaporized silicon

This hypothesis suggests that ball lightning is composed of silicon vaporized, burning through oxidation. Lightning hitting Earth’s soil could vaporize the silica within it and somehow separate the oxygen from the silicon dioxide, turning it into pure silicon vapor. As it cools, the silicon could condense into a floating aerosol, bound by its charge, glowing due to the heat of silicon recombining with oxygen.

An experimental study of this phenomenon, published in 2007, reported that the evaporation of pure silicon with an electric arc produced ‘luminous balls with lifetime in the order of seconds’. Videos and spectrographs of the experiment have been posted. The hypothesis has garnered considerable supporting data since 2014, when the first recorded spectra of ball lightning were published. The theorized forms of silicon storage in soil include nanoparticles of Si, SiO, and SiC. This has been dubbed the ‘dirt clod hypothesis’ by Matthew Francis, who has indicated that the spectrum of ball lightning shows it shares chemistry with soil.

Electrically charged solid-core model

In this model, a solid positively charged core is assigned to ball lightning. Based on the assumption of the model, within the thin electron layer around the core, there is nearly equal and opposite charge to that within the core. The vacuum between the core and the electron layer consists of an intense electromagnetic (EM) field, which is reflected and guided by the electron layer. The microwave EM field exerts a ponderomotive force, or radiation pressure, on the electrons, which prevents them from falling into the core.

Microwave cavity hypothesis

Pyotr Kapitsa proposed that ball lightning is a glow discharge driven by microwave radiation that is guided to the ball along lines of ionized air from lightning clouds where it is produced. The ball acts as a resonant microwave cavity, automatically adjusting its radius to the wavelength of the microwave radiation so that resonance is maintained.

The Handel Maser-Soliton theory of ball lightning hypothesizes that the energy source generating the ball lightning is a large (several cubic kilometers) atmospheric maser. The ball lightning appears as a plasma caviton at the antinodal plane of the microwave radiation from the maser.

In 2017, researchers at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, proposed that the bright glow of lightning balls is created when microwaves become trapped inside a plasma bubble. At the tip of a lightning stroke reaching the ground, a relativistic electron bunch can be produced when in contact with microwave radiation. The radiation ionizes the local air and the radiation pressure evacuates the plasma that forms a spherical plasma bubble that traps the radiation stably.

The microwaves locked in the ball continue to produce plasma for a little while to maintain the bright flashes as described by the observer accounts. The ball fades off once the radiation held within the cavity begins to decay and microwaves are released out of the sphere. Lightning balls may detonate in an incredibly explosive way as the formation de-stabilizes. It might be a theory to explain much of the unusual behavior associated with ball lightning. For example, microwaves are transmitted through glass. This accounts for the ability to create balls within enclosed areas.

Soliton hypothesis

Julio Rubinstein, David Finkelstein, and James R. Powell have suggested that ball lightning is just a detached St. Elmo’s fire (1964–1970). St. Elmo’s fire occurs when an acute conductor such as a mast of a ship enhances the electric field in atmosphere to the value of breakdown. For a ball, the enhancement factor is 3. An unbound ball of ionized air can amplify the ambient field this much on its own due to its own conductivity. When this maintains the ionization, the ball is then a soliton in the flow of atmospheric electricity.

The calculation of kinetic theory by Powell showed that ball size is dictated by the second Townsend coefficient relating to the mean free path for conduction electrons near breakdown. Wandering glow discharges take place in particular industrial microwave ovens and have been known to continue glowing even after the supply of power was cut off, for several seconds.

Arcs drawn from the high-power-low-voltage generators also exhibit an afterglow. Powell measured their spectra and found that the afterglow primarily comes from metastable NO ions, which are long-lived at low temperatures. This effect occurred in air and in nitrous oxide, which possess these metastable ions, but not in atmospheres of argon, carbon dioxide, or helium, which do not.

Further refining the soliton model of ball lightning, the authors proposed that ball lightning is based on spherically symmetric nonlinear oscillations of charged particles within plasma-analogous to spatial Langmuir solitons. Oscillations in both classical and quantum approaches were considered. Studies showed that the most intense plasma oscillations are located in the central regions of ball lightning.

Inside ball lightning, there could exist bound states of radially oscillating charged particles with oppositely oriented spins similar to Cooper pairs in superconductivity. It may prove to introduce a scenario for a superconducting phase inside the phenomenon. The idea of superconductivity within ball lightning has been considered before, and even in that model, it spoke of a multi-component core for ball lightning.

Hydrodynamic vortex ring antisymmetry

The hypothesis of burning inside the low-velocity area of spherical vortex breakup of a natural vortex[vague] (such as the ‘Hill’s spherical vortex’) is one theory that might explain the diverse range of observable evidence.

The notion of nanobattery

According to Oleg Meshcheryakov, ball lightning is composed of composite nano or submicrometer particles, each of which functions as a battery. These batteries are shorted by a surface discharge, which creates a current that shapes the ball. All of the observed characteristics and processes of ball lightning are explained by his model, which is referred to as an aerosol model.

The buoyant plasma theory

Declassified Project Condign report concludes that buoyant charged plasma formations, which look similar to ball lightning, are the result of a new mix of physical, electrical, and magnetic phenomena. Such charged plasmas travel at tremendous velocities due to the balance of electrical charges in the atmosphere. The report indicates that such plasmas are born out of complex weather conditions coupled with electrical charges; however, scientific understanding about the process remains incomplete.

One theory avers that meteoroids disintegrating in the atmosphere may produce charged plasmas rather than entirely burning up or striking the Earth as meteorites might account for some cases of ball lightning. Still, several view this as an explanation not sufficient to account for the phenomenon, observes Stenhoff, and it would not stand up under peer review, suggesting that still more work is needed to achieve a conclusive knowledge of ball lightning.

Magnetic field-induced hallucinations

Cooray and Cooray (2008) have proposed an interesting link between ball lightning and hallucinations observed in patients suffering from epileptic seizures in the occipital lobe. They reported that the characteristics of such hallucinations, which typically consist of visual phenomena like glowing lights, were analogous to those features observed for ball lightning. The study suggested that the rapidly changing magnetic field produced by a nearby lightning strike could be strong enough to excite the neurons in the brain, especially in the occipital lobe, which is responsible for processing visual information.

This potential link between lightning-induced seizures and ball lightning suggests that some ball lightning sightings might be related to epileptic hallucinations caused by the electrical disturbances from nearby thunderstorms. The idea is that in some cases, the perception of ball lightning might be an electrical phenomenon affecting the brain rather than a physical atmospheric event. This connection opens up a fascinating area of research into the intersection of neurological effects and atmospheric electricity.

Recent research with TMS has shed more light on the phenomenon of hallucinations similar to ball lightning. TMS can cause “magnetophosphenes,” which are visual hallucinations caused by magnetic fields stimulating the visual cortex of the brain. These hallucinations resemble the glowing orbs of light often reported in ball lightning sightings. Laboratory experiments show the TMS induce the same visible effects. A perception of how the external field can influence how the brain performs could thus actually explain ball lightning.

Further results also suggest these magnetophosphenes take place in real nature around electrical lightning. Ball lightning can again be an account of a small fraction of incidents where lightning itself creates disturbances triggering a nervous activity response in affected observers.

Still, this hypothesis does not explain the physical damage that sometimes accompanies it, such as fires or electrical burns and destroyed objects. There is also the problem that usually multiple people observe the phenomenon at the same time, sometimes in different places, which makes it hard to be supported by the idea that ball lightning is just a perceptual phenomenon originating from brain stimulation. This has to be a physical phenomenon, since in such cases, different people who observe it report consistency of their findings; it cannot be explained by simple neurological effect.

Therefore, while TMS-induced hallucinations may explain some reports of ball lightning, this hypothesis falls short of addressing the full range of observed effects, especially the physical damage and simultaneous sightings. The true nature of ball lightning remains an unresolved mystery in both physics and neuroscience.

The theoretical calculations by researchers at the University of Innsbruck are an interesting perspective on how certain types of lightning strikes might be capable of inducing visual hallucinations resembling ball lightning. These calculations suggest that the intense magnetic fields generated by lightning strikes, especially in areas where multiple strikes have occurred in a short period, could influence the neurons in the brain’s visual cortex.

The magnetic fields present in such regions may cause what is referred to as magnetophosphenes, wherein electromagnetic interference causes stimulation of the brain, leading to hallucinations. These hallucinations have been described as flashes or floating orbs of light, hence they closely resemble descriptions of ball lightning. This theory is that if a person is close to such lighting activities, then the electromagnetic interference could stimulate the visual pathways in a person’s brain, hence giving him or her the perception of a luminous, floating ball.

However, this hypothesis does not explain all aspects of the phenomenon. For instance, the physical damage that is observed with ball lightning, such as burns, fires, or even explosions, cannot be explained by hallucinations alone. Moreover, the fact that multiple witnesses observe the same phenomenon at the same time and location points to a physical event rather than a neurological one.

This theory is thus part of the rich literature in understanding how lightning and its magnetic fields could impact human perception, especially with respect to such phenomena as ball lightning. It presents an interesting angle that can bridge the gap between observed physical effects and potential perceptual distortions brought about by extreme electromagnetic conditions.

Rydberg matter theory

The idea of atmospheric Rydberg matter as an explanation for ball lightning phenomena proposed by Manykin and colleagues is a fascinating addition to the range of theories attempting to explain this mysterious phenomenon. Rydberg matter refers to a highly excited state of atoms where electrons are in extremely high-energy orbits. This form of matter is unlike the usual gases, liquids, or solids in that it is more like a condensed state with very low density, similar to electron-hole droplets in semiconductors but with some distinct properties, such as its extended lifetime.

It is particularly interesting in that it is an extended lifetime, which might explain why ball lightning is usually observed for a few seconds or even minutes. The excited states of matter normally decay within nanoseconds, while Rydberg matter can survive much longer and, possibly long enough to explain the duration of a ball lightning event.

The theory posits that atmospheric Rydberg matter could form in the case where lightning interacts with the atmosphere and causes condensation of highly excited atoms. These atoms, produced in lightning strikes, might create clusters of Rydberg matter that would act like a type of condensed plasma. These would be unstable agglomerations and might decay or “avalanche” in ways that yield bursts of short but intense energy releases, possibly explaining the explosive characteristics of ball lightning.

In some ways, this model is in line with other theories about ball lightning, in which high-energy states of matter and intense electromagnetic fields play a key role. However, like other hypotheses, this one still faces challenges, particularly regarding how Rydberg matter could form and persist in the atmosphere during lightning events, and how exactly it could lead to the kinds of physical effects associated with ball lightning (like explosions or burns).

While a very interesting and innovative proposal, it requires much experimental work with accompanying verification before such a theory could be accepted by the majority. However, it does describe why ball lightning, for instance, is so long-lived and sometimes explosive, making yet another piece in the still partially filled puzzle of this baffling phenomenon.

The vacuum theory

Nikola Tesla postulated in December 1899 that the balls were made of a hot, extremely rarefied gas.

Model of electrons and ions

According to Fedosin’s hypothesis, a magnetic field is produced by electrons rotating in the shell and charged ions inside the ball of lightning.

This theoretical model proposes that the long-term stability of ball lightning would result from the delicate balance of electric and magnetic forces responsible for maintaining the ball structure.

Thus, in the proposed model,

1. Electric force: The positive volume charge of the ions produces a centripetal force that keeps the electrons in place as they revolve around the core. This force, in effect, helps to keep the plasma of the ball in a state of cohesion and rotation, thus not dissipating rapidly.
2. Magnetic force: The ions are steered by the magnetic field generated by the charged plasma itself. The rotation of these charged ions around the magnetic field lines stabilizes the ball, which allows it to maintain its spherical shape and persists for longer periods than typical plasma discharges would.

This harmony between forces, that is, the combination of electric and magnetic, could explain why ball lightning persists for several seconds up to a minute, thus overcoming the expected quick decay from the usual other types of plasma. The rotational motion of the charged particles with forces at play assists the ball to last longer in time so as to be perceived.

• Maximum diameter of 34 cm: This gives an upper limit to the size of ball lightning as predicted by the model, which is that bigger balls would have broken down because the forces at play would no longer be in balance.
• About 10 microcoulombs in charge: The charge that was associated with this ball lightning, with the corresponding electric and magnetic fields, is such that, provided that forces are balanced in equilibrium, this structure of the ball will last.
• Around 11 kilojoule energy: This is the approximated energy contained in the ball lightning, which is large enough to cause observable phenomena like burns or explosions but not large enough to lead to instantaneous destruction of the ball. This also indicates that the ball contains a considerable amount of energy, which can account for the observed effects such as glowing or some violent discharges.
  Physical Implications:
  The diameter limit of 34 cm is a fascinating constraint, as larger balls would lose their stability or dissipate much faster due to changed dynamics in interactions between electric and magnetic forces.
• The energy calculation of 11 kilojoules gives an important benchmark in trying to understand how intense the phenomenon of ball lightning is. That is quite a lot of energy for something that is as small as it is, possibly why it could be able to cause physical impacts such as burns or damage to objects it contacts.

This model helps provide a theoretical framework for ball lightning, grounded in known principles of electromagnetism and plasma physics, and offers predictions that may be tested by future experiments. However, the elusive and unpredictable nature of ball lightning makes it a challenge to confirm these details through direct observation.

The electron-ion model you’re describing provides an intriguing explanation for bead lightning as well as ball lightning. The model suggests that both phenomena are based on charged particles (electrons and ions) that are held together by electric and magnetic forces. Let’s break down how this model works in the context of bead lightning.

Bead Lightning:

Bead lightning is often observed when linear lightning disintegrates into smaller, distinct sections, which appear as beads of light strung out along the path of the lightning. These beads can vary in size and are often associated with the tail of a lightning strike, particularly after the initial burst of energy.

Key Elements of the Electron-Ion Model for Bead Lightning:

1. Electric Charge of Each Bead:
   • The beads in bead lightning are essentially small spherical plasma formations. Each bead holds an electric charge that can be calculated based on the known dimensions of the beads.
   • The charge will vary depending on the size of each bead, but it can be large enough to influence the surrounding environment and interact with other beads.
2. Magnetic Field:
   • The moving charged particles within each bead produce their own magnetic field. The field generated by one bead will interact with the fields of other beads along the same lightning path.
3. Electric and Magnetic Forces:
   • The electric forces of repulsion between the neighboring beads work to push them apart. However, these forces are counteracted by the magnetic forces of attraction, as the magnetic field generated by one bead attracts the charged particles of the adjacent bead.
   • The magnetic forces in bead lightning are significantly stronger than the wind pressure or any external forces, keeping the beads in place along the lightning path.
4. Balance of Forces:
   • The beads remain stable due to the balance between repulsive electric forces and attractive magnetic forces. This balance is crucial for preventing the beads from scattering and dissipating too quickly, allowing them to exist for a short period before eventually fading away or dissipating when the forces are no longer balanced.
5. Extinction of Bead Lightning:
   • The extinction of bead lightning occurs when the balance between the electric and magnetic forces breaks down. This could happen due to changes in the surrounding environment, the dissipation of charge, or a disruption in the lightning’s path.
   • When the forces are no longer balanced, the beads disintegrate or vanish in a manner similar to the decay of ball lightning, though bead lightning is typically much shorter in duration.

Practical Implications:

• Charge and Magnetic Field Calculations: By measuring the dimensions of bead lightning, it’s possible to calculate the charge of a single bead and its magnetic field. These calculations could potentially help in further understanding the energy dynamics and behavior of such lightning phenomena.
• Force Balance: The model highlights how electromagnetic forces between the beads are far stronger than the forces exerted by environmental factors like wind pressure. This emphasizes the stability and persistence of the beads during their existence.

Comparison to Ball Lightning:

While the electron-ion model applies to both ball lightning and bead lightning, the key difference lies in how the forces balance and the shape of the lightning phenomena. Ball lightning forms a stable spherical structure due to the balance of electromagnetic forces, while bead lightning appears as smaller segments or “beads” along the path of a lightning strike.

Other hypotheses

Several hypotheses attempt to explain the phenomenon of ball lightning, each offering a unique perspective based on different physical principles and observed characteristics. Here’s a breakdown of some of the key theories:

1. Spinning Electric Dipole Hypothesis (1976):

• Proposed by V. G. Endean, this hypothesis suggests that ball lightning could be a spinning electric dipole—essentially, an electric field vector that rotates at a high frequency, potentially in the microwave region.
• The spin of the electric dipole would create a stable, localized electric field, which could explain the ball-like appearance and extended lifetimes of ball lightning.
• This model aligns with some of the characteristics observed in microwave interactions, such as the glowing effect and the possibility of oscillations in the electromagnetic field.

2. Electrostatic Leyden Jar Models (1971):

• Proposed by Stanley Singer, this hypothesis draws an analogy between ball lightning and the Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor that stores static electricity.
• According to this model, ball lightning could represent a localized electrostatic charge in the air, similar to a capacitor’s charge, that generates an electric field and could release energy in the form of light and heat.
• One of the key issues with this model, according to Singer, is that the recombination time of the electric charges in a Leyden jar would be too short to account for the long lifetimes of ball lightning observed in some cases.

3. Fractal Aerogel Hypothesis (1987):

• Proposed by Smirnov, this theory suggests that aerogels, or extremely low-density materials, could be involved in the formation of ball lightning.
• Aerogels, especially with fractal-like structures, have unique properties that allow them to trap charged particles and create localized electrical fields, which might explain the ball-shaped appearance of the phenomenon.
• This model also tries to explain the long lifetimes of ball lightning, as the structure of the aerogel could act as a kind of energy trap, sustaining the plasma within the ball.

4. Plasma Superconductivity Hypothesis (2006):

• Proposed by M. I. Zelikin, this hypothesis is based on the idea of plasma superconductivity, a concept in which plasma behaves like a superconductor under certain conditions.
• The idea is that ball lightning could form when a plasma becomes superconducting, allowing it to sustain an electric current indefinitely. This could explain the stable, glowing nature of the phenomenon and potentially its longer lifetimes.
• Plasma superconductivity could also help explain how ball lightning might be magnetically confined in a stable structure, much like how magnetic fields can control and contain high-energy particles in superconducting materials.

5. Collective Electron Oscillations Hypothesis (2010):

• A. Meessen proposed a theory that explains ball lightning as the result of collective oscillations of free electrons within a plasma ball.
• The simplest model describes radial oscillations in a spherical plasma membrane, where the oscillations are sustained by the inhalation of charged particles from the surrounding air. This would create self-sustaining oscillations that could explain the energy release in the form of light.
• According to this model, the extinction of ball lightning occurs when the surrounding air becomes too sparse in charged particles, leading to silent extinction. Alternatively, when the environment becomes too dense in charged particles, the ball could explode violently.
• This theory also introduces the idea that stationary waves could exist in the form of concentric luminous bubbles, which would explain observations of multiple concentric layers of light observed in some ball lightning cases.

Conclusion

Ball lightning remains one of the most enigmatic and elusive phenomena in atmospheric science, captivating researchers for over a century. Despite numerous hypotheses and experimental investigations, no single theory has managed to fully explain the phenomenon in a universally accepted way. The complexity of ball lightning arises from its rare occurrence, transient nature, and diverse characteristics observed by witnesses, including glowing spherical forms, erratic movement, and sometimes explosive behavior. These include plasma-based models and electromagnetic interactions to electrostatic and superconductivity concepts, which, in themselves, shed light on some features of the phenomenon but fail to describe all of the behaviors that have been observed.

One possibility that arises is the spinning electric dipole hypothesis, that ball lightning might be a rotating electric field in the microwave frequency region, an idea that, considering the microwave interactions and oscillations observed in some experimental phenomena, is certainly tantalizing.

Analogously, a localized electrostatic charge sustained in the air can be envisioned within the Leyden jar model but does not go far enough in explaining the very long lifetimes that are so commonly reported. Other models-the fractal aerogel, for example, or plasma superconductivity-would offer imaginative ways to approach how ball lightning could sustain both its energy and structure over extended periods of time, drawing comparison with known principles from other physical domains, for example, in condensed matter physics.

This one of the most recent hypotheses proposes that collective oscillations of electrons lead to a stable plasma structure, which may explain how ball lightning interacts with surrounding charged particles, leading to its stability and eventual extinction. Ideas based on magnetic field-generated visual hallucinations have received much attention, as observed associations exist between close lightning strikes and visual cortex hallucinations; however, this does not explain physical damage or multi-witness reports made simultaneously.

While many theoretical models exist, it is likely that the physical explanation for ball lightning involves the complex interplay between atmospheric conditions, electromagnetic interactions, and even plasma physics. The declassified reports, such as Project Condign, and studies on Rydberg matter seem to hint towards atmospheric phenomena, which could relate to exotic plasma forms. The electromagnetic forces that lead to these structures, along with weather conditions, remain less understood. For instance, theories on Rydberg matter indicate that condensed matter states in highly excited atomic states in the atmosphere may be capable of explaining some features of ball lightning; however, such a concept still awaits experimental validation.

Ultimately, with further developments in experimental techniques such as microwave radiation studies, high-speed imaging, and spectral analysis, the concept of ball lightning will be transformed. These experimental advances and more complete theoretical models may, in the long run, allow for a much more complete description of this relatively rare phenomenon. Meanwhile, the variety of hypotheses underscores the multi-faceted nature of ball lightning, pointing to the likelihood that it doesn’t have one explanation but, rather, the result of an interplay of atmospheric, electromagnetic, and quantum phenomena, still waiting to be fully deciphered. As such, ball lightning is of great inspiration for curiosity and inviting both scientific and theoretical explorations.

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